To cultivate one’s nature through vulgar learning, in the hope of restoring one’s original state; to clear away desires through vulgar thinking, in the hope of attaining enlightenment – such people are called the obscured and deluded.
Those in ancient times who cultivated the Way nourished wisdom through tranquility. When wisdom arose, they did not act through wisdom; this is called nourishing tranquility through wisdom. When wisdom and tranquility mutually nourish each other, harmony and order emerge from one’s nature. Virtue (De) is harmony; the Way (Dao, Tao) is order. Virtue embraces all things – this is benevolence. The Way orders all things – this is righteousness. When righteousness is clear and things feel close, this is loyalty. When the inner self is pure and solid and returns to true emotion, this is joy. When trust is practiced and the body accommodates form in accordance with refinement, this is ritual. But when ritual and music are practiced in a biased or partial way, then the world falls into chaos. When one is upright yet conceals one’s virtue, virtue does not overflow. If it overflows, things will inevitably lose their nature.
In ancient times, people lived in a state of primordial chaos, and the whole world was indifferent and tranquil. At that time, Yin and Yang were harmonious and still; spirits and ghosts did not disturb; the four seasons kept their proper order; all creatures were unharmed; no living beings died prematurely. Though humans possessed wisdom, there was no occasion to use it. This is called the “Supreme Unity.” At that time, nothing was done, yet all was constantly natural.
As virtue declined, Suiren and Fuxi began to govern the world, and thus there was compliance but not unity. As virtue declined further, Shennong and the Yellow Emperor began to govern the world, and thus there was stability but not compliance. As virtue declined still further, Tang (Yao) and Yu began to govern the world. They initiated the flow of governance and transformation, which diluted purity and scattered simplicity. They departed from the Way in the name of goodness, and endangered virtue through action. Then people abandoned their nature to follow their minds. When minds competed with minds in knowledge, it was insufficient to stabilize the world. Then they added refinement and increased breadth. Refinement destroyed substance; breadth drowned the mind. Then people began to be confused and disordered, unable to return to their true nature and restore their original state. From this we see: the world has lost the Way, and the Way has lost the world. The world and the Way have mutually lost each other. How can a person of the Way flourish in the world? How can the world flourish through the Way? When the Way cannot flourish in the world, and the world cannot flourish through the Way, even if the Sage is not in the mountains and forests, his virtue is hidden. It is not that he hides himself.
The so-called recluses of ancient times did not hide their bodies to avoid being seen; they did not seal their words to avoid speaking; they did not conceal their wisdom to avoid expressing it. It was because the times and fate were greatly astray. When the time and fate were right and the Way could be widely practiced in the world, they returned to Unity without leaving a trace. When the time and fate were wrong and they were greatly impoverished in the world, they struck deep roots and attained utmost tranquility while waiting: this is the way to preserve oneself.
Those in ancient times who preserved themselves did not use rhetoric to adorn their wisdom; they did not use wisdom to exhaust the world; they did not use wisdom to exhaust virtue. They stood upright in their place and returned to their nature – what else was there to do? The Way certainly does not operate in small ways; virtue is certainly not known through small insights. Small insights harm virtue; small actions harm the Way. Therefore it is said: Simply rectify oneself. The perfection of joy is called attaining one’s aspiration.
What was called “attaining one’s aspiration” in ancient times did not refer to high carriages and caps (official rank); it meant that nothing could add to their joy. What is called “attaining one’s aspiration” today refers to high carriages and caps. But high carriages and caps on one’s body are not one’s life or nature; they are things that come by chance, merely on loan. Being on loan, their coming cannot be blocked, and their going cannot be stopped. Therefore, one should not indulge one’s will because of high rank, nor conform to vulgar customs because of poverty and constraint. If one’s joy is the same whether in rank or in poverty, then one is simply without worry. But today, when the borrowed things depart, joy departs with them. From this we see: even if there is joy, it is always desolate. Therefore it is said: Those who lose themselves in things, and lose their nature in customs, are called the inverted people.
Note
This Zhuangzi ‑ Shanxing excerpt criticizes vulgar learning that distorts innate nature. It traces gradual decline of primordial Supreme‑Unity, urging inner tranquility and valuing true joy over fleeting worldly rank.
Suiren (The Fire-Driller, 燧人):
A mythological culture hero credited with teaching humans how to make fire (by drilling wood). He represents one of the earliest stages of human civilization. In Zhuangzi’s hierarchy, even his introduction of technology marks a decline from the perfect “Supreme Unity” of the primordial past.
Fuxi (伏羲):
A mythological sovereign and cultural ancestor, often depicted with a snake’s body. He is credited with creating the Eight Trigrams (the basis of the I Ching, or the Book of Changes), teaching hunting and fishing, and establishing marriage. He represents the dawn of symbolic thought and social structure.
Shennong (神农 – The Divine Farmer):
A mythological ruler credited with teaching agriculture and herbal medicine. He represents the transition to settled farming life.
The Yellow Emperor:
The Yellow Emperor is the legendary sovereign and cultural ancestor of the Chinese people. While revered in Confucianism and Daoism alike, Zhuangzi often uses him to mark stages in the decline of natural virtue. Here, his rule brought stability but lacked the spontaneous compliance of earlier times.
Tang (Yao) and Yu (Shun):
Yao and Shun are the paradigmatic Sage-Kings of Confucianism, representing the golden age of moral governance. Zhuangzi offers a sharp critique here: he argues that their introduction of “governance and transformation” actually corrupted humanity by diluting purity, scattering simplicity, and causing people to abandon their true nature in favor of artificial “goodness.”
Supreme Unity (至一):
A state of primordial perfection where humanity lived in complete harmony with the cosmos. In this state, Yin and Yang were balanced, nature was undisturbed, and human wisdom existed but was unnecessary. It represents the Daoist ideal of an uncorrupted, pre-civilizational existence.
Virtue and Wisdom Nourishing Each Other (知与恬交相养):
A key Daoist psychological concept. Wisdom should be nourished by tranquility, and tranquility should be sustained by wisdom. When balanced, they produce harmony and order naturally, rather than through forced effort.
The Inverted People (倒置之民):
A striking metaphor for people who have lost their true selves. They prioritize external things (wealth, status) over their internal nature, and conform to vulgar customs rather than following the Way. Zhuangzi calls this “inverted” because it puts the trivial above the essential.
High Carriages and Caps (轩冕 -Xuanmian):
A metonym for high official rank and social status. “High carriages” were the vehicles of nobility, and “caps” referred to the specific headwear of officials. Zhuangzi argues that these are merely “things that come by chance” (傥来之物) and are on loan to us; they are not part of our true nature or life.
Vulgar Learning and Vulgar Thinking (俗学 / 俗思):
Zhuangzi criticizes the conventional education and moral reasoning of his time (largely Confucian). He argues that trying to “fix” one’s nature through artificial learning or trying to “clear” the mind through deliberate thinking only leads to further obscuration.
Refinement Destroys Substance (文灭质):
A core Daoist critique of civilization. “Refinement” refers to rituals, culture, and artificial polish, while “substance” refers to natural, unadorned reality. Zhuangzi argues that excessive culture drowns out the true essence of things.
The Hidden Sage:
Zhuangzi redefines the concept of the recluse. He argues that ancient sages did not hide because they wanted to be antisocial or secretive. They hid because “the times and fate were greatly astray.” When the world is corrupt, the Sage preserves himself by “striking deep roots” (maintaining inner stability) and waiting for the right time. This is not cowardice, but wisdom.
外篇·缮性第十六
缮性于俗学，以求复其初；滑欲于俗思，以求致其明；谓之蔽蒙之民。
古之治道者，以恬养知。知生而无以知为也，谓之以知养恬。知与恬交相养，而和理出其性。夫德，和也；道，理也。德无不容，仁也；道无不理，义也；义明而物亲，忠也；中纯实而反乎情，乐也；信行容体而顺乎文，礼也。礼乐偏行，则天下乱矣。彼正而蒙己德，德则不冒。冒则物必失其性也。古之人，在混芒之中，与一世而得淡漠焉。当是时也，阴阳和静，鬼神不扰，四时得节，万物不伤，群生不夭，人虽有知，无所用之，此之谓至一。当是时也，莫之为而常自然。
逮德下衰，及燧人、伏羲始为天下，是故顺而不一。德又下衰，及神农、黄帝始为天下，是故安而不顺。德又下衰，及唐、虞始为天下，兴治化之流，浇淳散朴，离道以善，险德以行，然后去性而从于心。心与心识知，而不足以定天下，然后附之以文，益之以博。文灭质，博溺心，然后民始惑乱，无以反其性情而复其初。由是观之，世丧道矣，道丧世矣，世与道交相丧也。道之人何由兴乎世，世亦何由兴乎道哉！道无以兴乎世，世无以兴乎道，虽圣人不在山林之中，其德隐矣。隐故不自隐。古之所谓隐士者，非伏其身而弗见也，非闭其言而不出也，非藏其知而不发也，时命大谬也。当时命而大行乎天下，则反一无迹；不当时命而大穷乎天下，则深根宁极而待：此存身之道也。
古之存身者，不以辩饰知，不以知穷天下，不以知穷德，危然处其所而反其性已，又何为哉！道固不小行，德固不小识。小识伤德，小行伤道。故曰：正己而已矣。乐全之谓得志。
古之所谓得志者，非轩冕之谓也，谓其无以益其乐而已矣。今之所谓得志者，轩冕之谓也。轩冕在身，非性命也，物之傥来，寄者也。寄之，其来不可圉，其去不可止。故不为轩冕肆志，不为穷约趋俗，其乐彼与此同，故无忧而已矣！今寄去则不乐。由是观之，虽乐，未尝不荒也。故曰：丧己于物，失性于俗者，谓之倒置之民。
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