Xu Wugui, through Nü Shang, obtained an audience with Marquis Wu of Wei. The Marquis said to him: “Sir, you are ill! You have suffered the toil of mountains and forests, and so you are willing to see me.”
Xu Wugui said: “It is I who will labor for you, my lord. What have you to labor for me? If you fill your desires and increase your likes and dislikes, then the true nature of your life will be sick. If you remove your desires and strip away your likes and dislikes, then your ears and eyes will be sick. I will labor for you – what have you to labor for me?”
Marquis Wu looked aloof and did not reply. After a while, Xu Wugui said: “Let me tell you how I judge dogs. The lowest quality stops when it is full – this is cat-like virtue. The middle quality looks at the sun. The highest quality seems as if it has forgotten itself. But my judging of dogs is not as good as my judging of horses. In horses: the straight ones match the plumb line, the curved match the hook, the square match the square, the round match the compass. These are state horses, but not world horses. World horses have innate talent: they seem worried, seem lost, seem to have lost one part of themselves. Such horses surpass dust and leave no trace, and no one knows where they go.”
Marquis Wu was greatly pleased and laughed. Xu Wugui went out. Nü Shang said: “How did you alone please my lord? What I use to please him: horizontally I speak of the Poetry, History, Ritual, and Music; vertically I speak of the Golden Board and Six Secret Teachings. Those who served and achieved great merit are countless, yet my lord never opened his mouth to smile. How did you please him? Did you make him laugh like this?”
Xu Wugui said: “I merely told him how I judge dogs and horses.”
Nü Shang said: “Is that so?”
Xu Wugui said: “Have you not heard of the exiles of Yue? After leaving their state a few days, they are happy to see anyone they know. After ten days or a month, they are happy to see anyone they had seen in the state. After a year, they are happy to see anyone who looks like a human. Is it not that the longer away from people, the deeper the longing? Those who flee into emptiness, where chenopod and bindweed block the paths of weasels, and they dwell in the void, are happy when they hear the sound of human footsteps – how much more the coughs and laughs of brothers and relatives beside them! Long has it been since anyone spoke true words beside my lord!”
Xu Wugui saw Marquis Wu. Marquis Wu said: “Sir, you dwell in mountains and forests, eat acorns and chestnuts, fill yourself with scallions and leeks, and have treated me as a guest – long indeed! Are you now old? Do you wish to seek the taste of wine and meat? Or does my state have some blessing?”
Xu Wugui said: “I was born poor and lowly. I have never dared eat or drink your wine and meat. I have come to labor for you.”
The lord said: “What? How labor for me?”
Xu Wugui said: “To labor for your spirit and form.”
Marquis Wu said: “What do you mean?”
Xu Wugui said: “The nourishment of Heaven and Earth is one. Climbing high does not make one tall; dwelling low does not make one short. You alone are lord of ten thousand chariots, and you weary the people of a whole state to nourish your ears, eyes, nose, and mouth. The spirit does not consent to this. The spirit loves harmony and hates wickedness. Wickedness is a sickness; therefore I labor for it. But what is your sickness?”
Marquis Wu said: “I have long wished to see you. I wish to love the people and, for righteousness, stop war. Is that possible?”
Xu Wugui said: “No. Loving the people is the beginning of harming them. Stopping war for righteousness is the root of creating war. If you begin from this, you will likely not succeed. All accomplished beauty is a tool of evil. Though you practice benevolence and righteousness, you are close to falseness. Form inevitably creates form; completion inevitably has boasting; change inevitably brings outer war. You must not array cranes in ranks between your towers, nor gather horsemen in the palace of sacrifice, nor store opposition within gain, nor overcome others with cleverness, nor overcome others with scheming, nor overcome others with war. Those who kill other men’s soldiers and people, annex other men’s lands, to nourish my private self and my spirit – in such war, who knows what is good? Where is the victory? If you cannot stop, then cultivate the sincerity in your breast to respond to the feelings of Heaven and Earth and do not disturb them. Then the people will escape death. What need have you to stop war?”
The Yellow Emperor was going to see Da Wei on Mount Juci. Fang Ming was driving, Chang Yu was companion, Zhang Ruo and Xi Peng led the horses, Kun Hun and Hua Ji were behind. They came to the wilds of Xiangcheng. The seven sages all lost their way, and there was no one to ask. They happened to meet a boy herding horses. They asked him the way: “Do you know Mount Juci?”
“Yes.”
“Do you know where Da Wei is?”
“Yes.”
The Yellow Emperor said: “Strange boy! Not only do you know Mount Juci, you also know where Da Wei is. Please tell me about governing the world.”
The boy said: “Governing the world is just like this. What else is there? When I was young, I wandered within the six directions. I happened to have a dizzy illness. An elder taught me: ‘Ride the chariot of the sun and wander in the wilds of Xiangcheng.’ Now my illness is a little better, and I am about to wander outside the six directions. Governing the world is also like this. What else is there?”
The Yellow Emperor said: “Governing the world is truly not your affair. Still, please tell me about governing the world.”
The boy declined. The Yellow Emperor asked again. The boy said: “Governing the world – how is it different from herding horses? Just remove what harms the horses, that is all.”
The Yellow Emperor bowed twice, called him Heavenly Teacher, and withdrew.
Knowers without changes in thought are unhappy. Disputers without order of talk are unhappy. Scrutinizers without cases of conflict are unhappy. All are penned in by things. Those who summon the age rise in court. Middling people glory in office. Those of strength boast of difficulties. The brave rouse themselves in trouble. Soldiers delight in war. The withered lodge in fame. Legalists broaden governance. Ritualists respect appearances. Benevolent and righteous value relations. Farmers without weeds to clear are not at ease. Merchants without market affairs are not at ease. Common people with daily work are encouraged. Artisans with tools and skills are strong. If wealth and money do not accumulate, the greedy worry. If power and position are not prominent, the boastful grieve. Those of power and things delight in change. Meeting the time, they have use; they cannot be non-active. All these follow the seasons, not changing with things. They gallop their form and nature, sink into all things, and to the end do not return. Sad indeed!
Zhuangzi said: “An archer who hits without prior agreement is called a good archer – then everyone in the world is Yi, is that right?”
Huizi said: “Yes.”
Zhuangzi said: “The world has no common right, but each considers what he considers right as right – then everyone is Yao, is that right?”
Huizi said: “Yes.”
Zhuangzi said: “Then Confucians, Mohists, Yang, Bing – four, with you makes five – who is actually right? Or perhaps like Lu Qiu? His disciple said: ‘I have got the Master’s Way! I can cook a cauldron in winter and make ice in summer!’ Lu Qiu said: ‘This is merely calling yang by yang, calling yin by yin. It is not what I call the Way. I will show you my Way.’ Then he tuned a zither. He placed one on the hall, one in the room. When he struck gong, the gong string moved; when he struck jue, the jue string moved – same pitch. If he altered one string so it did not match the five notes, and struck it, all twenty-five strings moved. It was not different in sound, but it was the ruler of notes. And are you like this?”
Huizi said: “Now Confucians, Mohists, Yang, Bing are just about to debate with me, opposing words with words, suppressing with sounds, and none has ever shown me I am wrong. What then?”
Zhuangzi said: “A man of Qi sent his son to Song, and ordered the gatekeeper not to keep him whole. He sought a bell and bound it. He sought a lost child but never went outside the borders. There is a leftover category. A man of Chu lodged and sent a gatekeeper. At midnight, when no one was there, he fought with the boatman. Before leaving the bank, he had already made resentment.”
Zhuangzi attended a funeral. Passing Huizi’s grave, he turned to his followers and said: “A man of Ying had a speck of white clay on his nose, like a fly’s wing. He had the craftsman cut it off. The craftsman Shi wielded his axe like wind, listened and cut. He removed all the clay and the nose was not hurt. The man of Ying stood without changing expression. Duke Yuan of Song heard of it and summoned craftsman Shi: ‘Try it for me.’ Craftsman Shi said: ‘I could once cut it. However, my material has been dead a long time.’ Since you, Master, died, I have had no material. I have no one to talk with.”
Guan Zhong was ill. Duke Huan asked him: “Your illness, Uncle, is serious. If it comes to the great illness, to whom should I entrust the state?”
Guan Zhong said: “Whom does the Duke wish?”
The Duke said: “Bao Shuya.”
Guan Zhong said: “No. He is pure and honest, a good man. But he does not associate with those not like himself. Also, once he hears of a man’s fault, he never forgets it in his life. If he governs the state, above he will thwart the ruler, below he will oppose the people. He will soon offend you.”
The Duke said: “Then who is acceptable?”
Guan Zhong said: “If not, then Xi Peng is acceptable. His character: above he forgets, below he is not partisan. He is ashamed not to equal the Yellow Emperor, and he pities those not equal to himself. To share virtue with others is called sage; to share wealth with others is called worthy. To lord worth over others, none wins them. To be worthy and humble toward others, none fails to win them. In the state he does not hear; in the family he does not see. If not, then Xi Peng is acceptable.”
The King of Wu floated on the Yangtze and climbed the Mount of Monkeys. The monkeys saw him, fled in fear into deep thickets. One monkey, however, stretched and grabbed, showing its cleverness to the king. The king shot at it; it nimbly caught the arrow. The king ordered his attendants to shoot quickly; the monkey was seized and died. The king turned to his friend Yan Buyi and said: “This monkey, boasting of its cleverness, relying on its agility to be insolent to me, came to this execution. Be warned! Alas! Do not with your looks be arrogant to others!”
Yan Buyi returned and studied under Dong Wu, to weed out his expression, abandon pleasures, and decline prominence. After three years, the people of the state praised him.
Nanbo Ziqi sat leaning on a table, looked up to heaven, and sighed. Yan Chengzi came in and said: “Master, you are outstanding among things. Can the form be made like a withered corpse, the mind like dead ashes?”
He said: “I once lived in a mountain cave. At that time, Tian He once saw me, and the people of Qi congratulated him three times. I must have first had it; therefore he knew it. I must have sold it; therefore he traded it. If I did not have it, how could he know it? If I did not sell it, how could he trade it? Alas! I grieve for people who lose themselves. I also grieve for those who grieve for others. I also grieve for those who grieve for the grief of others. Afterwards I grew daily more distant.”
Confucius went to Chu. The King of Chu gave him wine. Sunshu Ao held the cup and stood. Shinan Yiliao received the wine and poured a libation, saying: “Ancient men! At this point speak.”
He said: “Qiu has heard the wordless word; he has never spoken it. Here I speak it: Shinan Yiliao juggled balls and the troubles of two families were resolved. Sunshu Ao slept sweetly and held a feather fan, and the people of Ying laid down their weapons. Qiu wishes he had a beak three feet long.”
This is called the Way that is not a way, the argument that is not spoken. Therefore virtue is gathered in the oneness of the Way, and words rest in what knowledge does not know – this is the utmost. What the Way unifies, virtue cannot make same. What knowledge cannot know, argument cannot raise. Names like Confucian and Mohist are ominous. Thus the sea does not refuse the eastward flow – this is the utmost greatness. The sage embraces Heaven and Earth, benefits the world, and no one knows whose family he is. Therefore in life he has no rank, in death no posthumous name. Substance is not gathered, fame is not established – this is called the Great Man. A dog is not considered good for barking well; a man is not considered worthy for speaking well – how much less for being great! To be great is not enough to be great – how much less for virtue! The greatly complete is none like Heaven and Earth. What do they seek? Yet they are greatly complete. One who knows the greatly complete has no seeking, no loss, no rejection, and does not exchange himself for things. Returning to himself without end, following antiquity without polishing – this is the sincerity of the Great Man.
Ziqi had eight sons. He lined them up before him and summoned Jiu Fangyan: “Read my sons for me – which will be auspicious?”
Jiu Fangyan said: “Kun will be auspicious.”
Ziqi was startled and pleased: “What do you mean?”
“Kun will share the food of a ruler of a state to the end of his life.”
Ziqi burst into tears: “Why has my son come to this extremity?”
Jiu Fangyan said: “To share the food of a ruler of a state – blessings extend to the three clans, how much more to parents! Now you hear it and weep – this is blocking fortune. The son is auspicious; the father is not.”
Ziqi said: “Yan, how could you understand? Is Kun’s auspiciousness only wine and meat entering nose and mouth? How would you know where it comes from? I never herded, yet a ewe was born in the corner. I never loved hunting, yet a quail was born in the hollow. If you do not find this strange, why? What I wandered with my sons was in Heaven and Earth. I invited joy with them in Heaven, food with them in Earth. I did not make affairs with them, did not scheme with them, did not make weirdness with them. I rode the sincerity of Heaven and Earth with them and did not let things disturb us. I yielded with them and did not make what affairs deemed fitting. Now there is this worldly repayment? All who have strange omens must have strange conduct. Perilous! It is not the fault of me and my son; it is nearly from Heaven. Therefore I weep.”
Before long, Kun was sent to Yan. Robbers got him on the road. To sell him whole was difficult; cutting off his foot was easier. So they cut off his foot and sold him in Qi. It happened that he was on the street of Duke Qu, and so he ate meat to the end of his life.
Ni Que met Xu You and said: “Where are you going?”
“I will flee from Yao.”
“Why?”
“Yao is busily benevolent. I fear he will be laughed at by the world. Later generations will eat one another! People are not hard to gather. Love them and they draw near; profit them and they come; praise them and they are encouraged; bring what they hate and they scatter. Love and profit come from benevolence and righteousness. Those who abandon benevolence and righteousness are few; those who profit from them are many. The practice of benevolence and righteousness, besides lacking sincerity, also borrows the tools of greedy birds and beasts. Thus one man’s arbitrary rule benefiting the world is like a single glance. Yao knew the worthy benefit the world, but did not know they rob the world. Only one outside the worthy knows this.”
There are the warm and pretty; the clinging and needful; the curled and worn.
The so-called warm and pretty: learning one teacher’s words, then warm and pretty, privately pleased, thinking himself sufficient, not knowing that there has never yet been any thing. This is called warm and pretty.
The clinging and needful: the pig louse. Choosing sparse bristles and long hair, it thinks it has a broad palace and great park. Between the hoofs, in the curves, between the teats, on the legs, it thinks it has a safe room and convenient place. It does not know that one day the butcher will roll up his sleeves, spread straw, take fire, and it will be burned with the pig. This advances by territory, retreats by territory – this is called clinging and needful.
The curled and worn: Shun. Mutton does not long for ants; ants long for mutton, because mutton is rank. Shun had rank conduct; the people delighted in him. Thus three times he moved and formed a capital; at Deng’s ruins there were more than a hundred thousand families. Yao heard of Shun’s worth and raised him from a barren land, saying: “I hope to get the blessings of his coming.” Shun was raised from a barren land. His years grew long, his intelligence declined, and he could not rest and return – this is called curled and worn. Therefore the spirit man hates the crowd’s arrival. When the crowd arrives, there is no harmony; without harmony, no benefit. Thus have no great intimacy, no great distance; embrace virtue and warm harmony to follow the world – this is called the True Man. In ants, discard knowledge; in fish, get the plan; in sheep, discard intention. Use the eye to look at the eye, the ear to listen to the ear, the mind to return to the mind. If so, his levelness is like the plumb line, his changes follow. The True Men of old! They treated things by Heaven, not entering man into Heaven – the True Men of old!
Gain it and live; lose it and die. Gain it and die; lose it and live: this is medicine. In reality, aconite, campanula, chicken pox, pig zero – these at times are emperors. How can they be fully described!
Goujian with three thousand armored men lodged at Kuaiji. Only Zhong knew how to preserve the state from destruction; only Zhong did not know the sorrow of his own person. Therefore: the owl’s eye has its fit; the crane’s leg has its measure; cut it and there is grief. Therefore: when wind passes over the river, there is loss; when the sun passes over the river, there is loss. Let wind and sun together guard the river, and the river thinks it has never been disturbed – it relies on its source and goes. Thus water’s guarding of earth is sure; shadow’s guarding of man is sure; things’ guarding of things is sure. Therefore the eye’s pursuit of brightness is perilous; the ear’s pursuit of acuity is perilous; the mind’s pursuit of sacrifice is perilous. Every ability in its storehouse is perilous. When peril is completed, there is no time to change. The growth of calamity is gathered; its return follows merit; its fruit awaits long. Yet people take it as their treasure – is this not sad! Thus there are endless ruined states and slaughtered people, and they do not know to ask about this. Therefore the foot’s relation to earth is treading; though it treads, it relies on what it does not tread, and then it can be good and broad. Man’s knowledge is little; though little, it relies on what it does not know, and then it knows what Heaven calls. Know the Great One, know the Great Yin, know the Great Eye, know the Great Equality, know the Great Square, know the Great Trust, know the Great Settledness – this is the utmost. The Great One penetrates it; the Great Yin explains it; the Great Eye sees it; the Great Equality follows it; the Great Square embodies it; the Great Trust examines it; the Great Settledness holds it. Exhausting there is Heaven; following there is illumination; darkly there is a pivot; beginning there is the other. Then its explaining seems not to explain; its knowing seems not to know. Not knowing and then knowing. Its asking cannot have a border, yet cannot be without a border. In confusion there is reality; past and present do not replace it, and it cannot be diminished. Then can it not be called a great elucidation? Why not ask about this? Why be confused? Use non-confusion to explain confusion, return to non-confusion – this is still great non-confusion.
Note
Zhuangzi is not a history book. Many figures appear as characters in philosophical parables, and some are legendary, semi-legendary, or used anachronistically. The notes below explain the most important names and references for readers unfamiliar with ancient China.
Xu Wugui (徐无鬼)
A Daoist figure, possibly fictional. His name means something like “No Ghost.” He gains an audience with Marquis Wu of Wei and tries to “labor for” the ruler – not by flattering him, but by curing his spirit.
Nü Shang (女商)
A courtier or intermediary who introduces Xu Wugui to Marquis Wu. He tries to please the ruler with the Confucian classics and military texts, but fails. Xu Wugui succeeds by talking about dogs and horses.
Marquis Wu of Wei (魏武侯)
A ruler of the state of Wei during the Warring States period. He is portrayed as a ruler who wants to love his people and stop war, but does not understand the deeper dangers of forced benevolence and military ambition.
The Yellow Emperor (黄帝)
A legendary sage ruler and culture hero of ancient China. In this chapter he travels to see the sage Da Wei on Mount Juci, accompanied by six attendants. The seven of them lose their way.
Da Wei (大隗)
A legendary sage or spirit said to dwell on Mount Juci. The Yellow Emperor seeks him out.
Fang Ming, Chang Yu, Zhang Ruo, Xi Peng, Kun Hun, Hua Ji (方明、昌宇、张若、謵朋、昆阍、滑稽)
Legendary attendants of the Yellow Emperor. Together with the Yellow Emperor they make up the “Seven Sages” who lose their way in the wilds of Xiangcheng.
The Horse-Herding Boy (牧马童子)
A child who knows the way to Mount Juci and to Da Wei. He teaches the Yellow Emperor that governing the world is like herding horses: just remove what harms them. He represents natural, uncorrupted wisdom.
Huizi / Hui Shi (惠子 / 惠施)
A logician and friend-rival of Zhuangzi. In this chapter he debates Zhuangzi about archery, rightness, and the nature of truth. Zhuangzi later mourns him at his grave.
Zhuangzi (庄子)
The author-figure of the text. He appears in the famous story of the Ying man and the craftsman, using it to express grief over Huizi’s death.
Guan Zhong (管仲)
A famous statesman and advisor to Duke Huan of Qi. On his deathbed, he advises the duke not to appoint Bao Shuya as his successor, recommending Xi Peng instead.
Duke Huan of Qi (齐桓公)
A famous ruler of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period, traditionally counted as the first of the Five Hegemons. He asks Guan Zhong who should succeed him.
Bao Shuya (鲍叔牙)
Guan Zhong’s friend, known for his integrity. Guan Zhong says he is too pure and unforgiving to govern well.
Xi Peng (隰朋)
A minister of Qi. Guan Zhong recommends him because he is humble, forgets slights, and pities those less capable than himself.
King of Wu (吴王)
A ruler of the state of Wu. He climbs Monkey Mountain, where a monkey shows off its agility and is shot dead. The king uses this to warn his friend against arrogance.
Yan Buyi (颜不疑)
A friend of the King of Wu. After the monkey incident, he studies under Dong Wu to remove his arrogant expression and abandon pleasure and fame. After three years, the people praise him.
Dong Wu (董梧)
A teacher or sage under whom Yan Buyi studies.
Nanbo Ziqi / Ziqi (南伯子綦 / 子綦)
A Daoist sage. He sighs and tells Yan Chengzi how he once lived in a cave, and how Tian He’s seeing him caused the people of Qi to congratulate Tian He. He grieves for people who lose themselves.
Yan Chengzi (颜成子)
A visitor or disciple who asks Nanbo Ziqi about making the body like a withered corpse and the mind like dead ashes.
Tian He (田禾)
A figure from Qi. When he saw Ziqi, the people of Qi congratulated him three times. This may refer to Tian He (田和), a Qi noble who later usurped power.
Confucius (孔子)
The founder of Confucianism. In this chapter he goes to Chu, where the King of Chu toasts him. He speaks of “the wordless word” and praises Shinan Yiliao and Sunshu Ao.
King of Chu (楚王)
A ruler of Chu who hosts Confucius.
Sunshu Ao (孙叔敖)
A famous minister of Chu, known for wisdom and humility. He is said to have slept peacefully and held a feather fan while the people of Ying laid down their weapons.
Shinan Yiliao (市南宜僚)
A figure from Chu. He is said to have juggled balls and resolved a dispute between two families without violence.
Jiu Fangyan (九方歅)
A famous physiognomist, traditionally known for judging horses and people. Ziqi asks him to read the fortunes of his eight sons.
Ziqi (子綦)
Here the father of eight sons. He is likely the same Nanbo Ziqi. He weeps when Jiu Fangyan predicts his son Kun will share a ruler’s food, because he senses a strange fate.
Kun (梱)
Ziqi’s son. Predicted to share a ruler’s food, he is later captured by robbers, mutilated, and sold to Qi, where he ends up eating meat at Duke Qu’s street. The prophecy is fulfilled in a tragic way.
Duke Qu (渠公)
A duke of Qi or a local ruler. Kun ends up on his street, eating meat to the end of his life.
Ni Que (齧缺)
A Daoist figure. He meets Xu You and asks where he is going.
Xu You (许由)
A legendary hermit who refused to accept the throne from Yao. Here he says he will flee from Yao because Yao’s busy benevolence will cause later generations to eat one another.
Yao (尧)
A legendary sage king. In Confucian tradition he is a model ruler; in this chapter he is criticized for promoting worthiness and benevolence, which Zhuangzi sees as the root of future disorder.
Shun (舜)
Another legendary sage king. He is called “curled and worn” because he exhausted himself in service, never able to rest.
Goujian (句践)
King of Yue. After defeat by Wu, he endured at Kuaiji with three thousand armored men, then eventually destroyed Wu.
Wen Zhong / Zhong (文种 / 种)
Goujian’s minister. He knew how to preserve Yue from destruction, but did not know how to save himself. He was later forced to commit suicide.
Confucians, Mohists, Yang, Bing (儒、墨、杨、秉)
Four schools or thinkers: Confucians, Mohists, Yang Zhu (杨朱), and a thinker named Bing (秉). Zhuangzi uses them to mock endless debates about who is right.
Lu Qiu (鲁遽)
A musician or philosopher. He demonstrates sympathetic resonance on a zither to argue that true harmony is not just matching like with like.
Craftsman Shi (匠石)
A master craftsman. He could swing an axe and remove a speck of clay from a man’s nose without injury.
The Man of Ying (郢人)
A man from Ying, the capital of Chu. He stood perfectly still while Craftsman Shi cut clay off his nose. After his death, Craftsman Shi had no one who could be his partner.
Duke Yuan of Song (宋元君)
A ruler of Song. He asks Craftsman Shi to repeat the nose-cutting feat, but the craftsman says his partner is dead.
Xu Wugui’s Audience with Marquis Wu
Xu Wugui tells the marquis about judging dogs and horses. The marquis laughs. Nü Shang is amazed, because all his classics and military texts failed to please the ruler. Xu Wugui explains that the ruler has long been starved of true words, like an exile longing for a familiar face.
The Exiles of Yue (越之流人)
People who leave their state and, after days, months, or a year, grow ever more happy to see anyone familiar. The story illustrates how much the ruler longs for genuine human contact.
The Yellow Emperor and the Boy Herder
The Yellow Emperor and his six attendants lose their way. A boy herding horses knows both Mount Juci and Da Wei. He tells the emperor that governing the world is like herding horses: remove what harms them. This is a classic Daoist image of non-interference.
The Debate with Huizi
Zhuangzi asks whether everyone who hits a target without prior agreement is a good archer – then everyone would be Yi. He asks whether everyone who thinks himself right is right – then everyone would be Yao. Huizi agrees. Zhuangzi then asks who among Confucians, Mohists, Yang, Bing, and Huizi is actually right. The point: without a common standard, “rightness” is relative.
Lu Qiu’s Zither Demonstration
Lu Qiu tunes two zithers, one in the hall and one in the room. Striking a note on one makes the same string on the other vibrate. If he alters one string, all twenty-five strings move. This illustrates sympathetic resonance and the idea that true harmony is not mere agreement.
Zhuangzi at Huizi’s Grave
Zhuangzi tells the story of the Ying man and Craftsman Shi. The craftsman could cut clay off the man’s nose because the man stood perfectly still. After the man died, the craftsman had no partner. Zhuangzi says: “Since you died, I have had no one to talk with.” It is a moving tribute to Huizi.
Guan Zhong’s Deathbed Advice
Duke Huan asks Guan Zhong who should succeed him. Guan Zhong rejects Bao Shuya because he is too strict and unforgiving. He recommends Xi Peng, who is humble and can tolerate others. This is a lesson in leadership and human relations.
The Monkey on Monkey Mountain
A monkey shows off its agility to the King of Wu. The king shoots; the monkey catches the arrow. The king orders many archers to shoot, and the monkey dies. The king warns Yan Buyi not to be arrogant. Yan Buyi then studies under Dong Wu to remove his arrogance.
Nanbo Ziqi’s Sigh
Ziqi lived in a cave. When Tian He saw him, the people of Qi congratulated Tian He. Ziqi realizes he must have “had” something and “sold” something. He grieves for people who lose themselves, for those who grieve for them, and for those who grieve for the grief of others.
Confucius in Chu
Confucius says he has heard the “wordless word.” He praises Shinan Yiliao, who juggled balls and resolved a dispute, and Sunshu Ao, who slept peacefully with a feather fan while the people of Ying laid down arms. Confucius says he wishes he had a beak three feet long – perhaps to speak of what cannot be spoken.
Ziqi’s Eight Sons and Jiu Fangyan
Jiu Fangyan predicts Kun will share a ruler’s food. Ziqi weeps because he knows this means a strange fate. Kun is later captured, mutilated, and sold to Qi, where he eats meat at Duke Qu’s street. The prophecy is fulfilled, but not as ordinary people would expect.
Xu You Flees Yao
Xu You says he will flee from Yao because Yao’s busy benevolence will lead to people eating one another. People are easy to gather through love and profit, but love and profit come from benevolence and righteousness. Yao knows worthies benefit the world, but not that they rob it.
Goujian at Kuaiji
Goujian, king of Yue, endured defeat at Kuaiji with three thousand armored men. Wen Zhong knew how to save the state but not how to save himself. The text uses this to show that ability in one area does not guarantee wisdom in another.
The Pig Louse (豕虱)
A pig louse lives among the bristles and thinks it has a palace. It does not know the butcher will one day burn it along with the pig. This illustrates the “clinging and needful” type, who mistake a temporary shelter for security.
Shun as “Curled and Worn” (卷娄)
Mutton attracts ants because it is rank. Shun had “rank” conduct, so people loved him. He moved three times and formed capitals, but grew old and could not rest. The spirit man hates crowds because crowds bring no harmony.
The Wind and Sun over the River
Wind and sun passing over a river cause loss, but the river thinks it is undisturbed because it relies on its source. This illustrates how living things depend on what is unseen and deeper than themselves.
Physiognomy of Dogs and Horses (相狗相马)
Judging the quality of dogs and horses by their appearance and behavior. Xu Wugui uses this to engage Marquis Wu. It is a traditional skill and a metaphor for judging character.
Mountain Hermits (山林之士)
Daoist and other recluses who withdraw from court life. Xu Wugui is described as living in mountains and forests, eating acorns and chestnuts.
Ruler of Ten Thousand Chariots (万乘之主)
A way of describing a powerful ruler. “Ten thousand chariots” indicates a large state.
Stopping War for Righteousness (为义偃兵)
Marquis Wu wants to love the people and stop war. Xu Wugui says this is the beginning of harming the people and the root of creating war, because it is forced and artificial.
Military Displays (盛鹤列于丽谯之间, 徒骥于锱坛之宫)
Images of military parades, towers, and ritual palaces. Xu Wugui warns the ruler not to rely on such displays.
The Six Directions (六合)
The four cardinal directions plus above and below – i.e., the whole universe. The horse-herding boy wanders within and beyond the six directions.
Confucian and Military Classics (《诗》《书》《礼》《乐》,《金板》《六韬》)
The Poetry, History, Ritual, and Music are Confucian classics. The Golden Board and Six Secret Teachings are military texts. Nü Shang tries to use them to please the ruler.
Tuning the Zither (调瑟)
A musical demonstration of sympathetic resonance. It illustrates how things of the same pitch respond to one another.
Sitting Leaning on a Low Table (隐几而坐)
A posture of meditation or quiet contemplation. Nanbo Ziqi sits this way and sighs.
Physiognomy / Reading Faces (相面)
Jiu Fangyan reads the fate of Ziqi’s sons. Physiognomy was a serious art in ancient China, used to predict character and fortune.
Toasting and Libation (觞, 受酒而祭)
The King of Chu toasts Confucius. Sunshu Ao holds the cup; Shinan Yiliao receives wine and pours a libation. These are ritual gestures of respect.
Juggling Balls (弄丸)
Shinan Yiliao is said to have juggled balls and resolved a dispute between two families. It represents effortless skill and peacemaking.
Sleeping with a Feather Fan (甘寝秉羽)
Sunshu Ao slept peacefully while holding a feather fan, and the people of Ying laid down their weapons. It represents governance by non-action and inner calm.
“A Beak Three Feet Long” (有喙三尺)
Confucius says he wishes he had a beak three feet long. This is a humorous way of saying he would need a very long beak to speak of what cannot be spoken.
The Three Types: Warm and Pretty, Clinging and Needful, Curled and Worn (暖姝、濡需、卷娄)
Three categories of limited people:
- Warm and pretty: those who learn one teacher’s words and feel smugly satisfied.
- Clinging and needful: like a pig louse, mistaking temporary comfort for security.
- Curled and worn: like Shun, exhausted by service and fame.
Mutton and Ants (羊肉不慕蚁，蚁慕羊肉)
Mutton does not long for ants; ants long for mutton because it is rank. Shun had “rank” conduct, so people flocked to him. The image warns against attracting crowds through fame or virtue.
Three Moves Forming a Capital (三徙成都)
Shun moved three times, and each place became a capital. This shows how people gathered to him.
Deng Ruins and Barren Land (邓之虚, 童土之地)
Places associated with Shun’s rise. He was raised from a barren land.
Embracing Virtue and Warming Harmony (抱德炀和)
The ideal of the True Man: no excessive intimacy, no excessive distance, embracing virtue and harmony to follow the world.
Eye Looking at Eye, Ear Listening to Ear, Mind Returning to Mind (以目视目，以耳听耳，以心复心)
Direct perception without interference. The True Man uses each faculty for its own function.
Medicines and Herbs (堇、桔梗、鸡雍、豕零)
Aconite, campanula, and other herbs. The text says these at times become “emperors” – i.e., the most important medicine. It illustrates how value shifts with time and need.
Owl’s Eyes and Crane’s Legs (鸱目有所适，鹤胫有所节)
An owl’s eyes are suited to night; a crane’s legs are suited to wading. Cut them and there is grief. Everything has its proper measure.
The Great One, Great Yin, Great Eye, Great Equality, Great Square, Great Trust, Great Settledness (大一、大阴、大目、大均、大方、大信、大定)
Cosmological and philosophical terms. They describe ultimate principles: the Great One penetrates all; the Great Yin explains all; the Great Eye sees all; the Great Equality follows all; the Great Square embodies all; the Great Trust examines all; the Great Settledness holds all. These are the highest reaches of Daoist wisdom.
杂篇·徐无鬼第二十四
徐无鬼因女商见魏武侯，武侯劳之曰：“先生病矣，苦于山林之劳，故乃肯见于寡人。”徐无鬼曰：“我则劳于君，君有何劳于我！君将盈耆欲，长好恶，则性命之情病矣；君将黜耆欲，掔好恶，则耳目病矣。我将劳君，君有何劳于我！”武侯超然不对。少焉，徐无鬼曰：“尝语君吾相狗也：下之质，执饱而止，是狸德也；中之质，若视日；上之质，若亡其一。吾相狗又不若吾相马也。吾相马：直者中绳，曲者中钩，方者中矩，圆者中规。是国马也，而未若天下马也。天下马有成材，若恤若失，若丧其一。若是者，超轶绝尘，不知其所。”武侯大悦而笑。徐无鬼出，女商曰：“先生独何以说吾君乎？吾所以说吾君者，横说之则以《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《乐》，从说则以《金板》、《六韬》，奉事而大有功者不可为数，而吾君未尝启齿。今先生何以说吾君？使吾君说若此乎？”徐无鬼曰：“吾直告之吾相狗马耳。”女商曰：“若是乎？”曰：“子不闻夫越之流人乎？去国数日，见其所知而喜；去国旬月，见所尝见于国中者喜；及期年也，见似人者而喜矣。不亦去人滋久，思人滋深乎？夫逃虚空者，藜藋柱乎鼪鼬之径，良位其空，闻人足音跫然而喜矣，又况乎昆弟亲戚之謦欬其侧者乎！久矣夫，莫以真人之言謦欬吾君之侧乎！”
徐无鬼见武侯，武侯曰：“先生居山林，食芧栗，厌葱韭，以宾寡人，久矣夫！今老邪？其欲干酒肉之味邪？其寡人亦有社稷之福邪？”徐无鬼曰：“无鬼生于贫贱，未尝敢饮食君之酒肉，将来劳君也。”君曰：“何哉！奚劳寡人？”曰：“劳君之神与形。”武侯曰：“何谓邪？”徐无鬼曰：“天地之养也一，登高不可以为长，居下不可以为短。君独为万乘之主，以苦一国之民，以养耳目鼻口，夫神者不自许也。夫神者，好和而恶奸。夫奸，病也，故劳之。唯君所病之何也？”武侯曰：“欲见先生久矣！吾欲爱民而为义偃兵，其可乎？”徐无鬼曰：“不可。爱民，害民之始也；为义偃兵，造兵之本也。君自此为之，则殆不成。凡成美，恶器也。君虽为仁义，几且伪哉！形固造形，成固有伐，变固外战。君亦必无盛鹤列于丽谯之间，无徒骥于锱坛之宫，无藏逆于得，无以巧胜人，无以谋胜人，无以战胜人。夫杀人之士民，兼人之土地，以养吾私与吾神者，其战不知孰善？胜之恶乎在？君若勿已矣！修胸中之诚以应天地之情而勿撄。夫民死已脱矣，君将恶乎用夫偃兵哉！
黄帝将见大隗乎具茨之山，方明为御，昌宇骖乘，张若、謵朋前马，昆阍、滑稽后车。至于襄城之野，七圣皆迷，无所问涂。适遇牧马童子，问涂焉，曰：“若知具茨之山乎？”曰：“然。”“若知大隗之所存乎？”曰：“然。”黄帝曰：“异哉小童！非徒知具茨之山，又知大隗之所存。请问为天下。”小童曰：“夫为天下者，亦若此而已矣，又奚事焉！予少而自游于六合之内，予适有瞀病，有长者教予曰：‘若乘日之车而游于襄城之野。’今予病少痊，予又且复游于六合之外。夫为天下亦若此而已。予又奚事焉！”黄帝曰：“夫为天下者，则诚非吾子之事，虽然，请问为天下。”小童辞。黄帝又问。小童曰：“夫为天下者，亦奚以异乎牧马者哉！亦去其害马者而已矣！”黄帝再拜稽首，称天师而退。
知士无思虑之变则不乐；辩士无谈说之序则不乐；察士无凌谇之事则不乐：皆囿于物者也。招世之士兴朝；中民之士荣官；筋力之士矜难；勇敢之士奋患；兵革之士乐战；枯槁之士宿名；法律之士广治；礼教之士敬容；仁义之士贵际。农夫无草莱之事则不比；商贾无市井之事则不比；庶人有旦暮之业则劝；百工有器械之巧则壮。钱财不积则贪者忧，权势不尤则夸者悲，势物之徒乐变。遭时有所用，不能无为也，此皆顺比于岁，不物于易者也。驰其形性，潜之万物，终身不反，悲夫！
庄子曰：“射者非前期而中谓之善射，天下皆羿也，可乎？”惠子曰：“可。”庄子曰：“天下非有公是也，而各是其所是，天下皆尧也，可乎？”惠子曰：“可。”庄子曰：“然则儒墨杨秉四，与夫子为五，果孰是邪？或者若鲁遽者邪？其弟子曰：‘我得夫子之道矣！吾能冬爨鼎而夏造冰矣！’鲁遽曰：‘是直以阳召阳，以阴召阴，非吾所谓道也。吾示子乎吾道。’于是乎为之调瑟，废一于堂，废一于室，鼓宫宫动，鼓角角动，音律同矣！夫或改调一弦，于五音无当也，鼓之，二十五弦皆动，未始异于声而音之君已！且若是者邪！”惠子曰∶“今乎儒墨杨秉，且方与我以辩，相拂以辞，相镇以声，而未始吾非也，则奚若矣？”庄子曰：“齐人蹢子于宋者，其命阍也不以完；其求钘钟也以束缚；其求唐子也而未始出域：有遗类矣！夫楚人寄而蹢阍者；夜半于无人之时而与舟人斗，未始离于岑而足以造于怨也。”
庄子送葬，过惠子之墓，顾谓从者曰：“郢人垩慢其鼻端，若蝇翼。使匠人斫之。匠石运斤成风，听而斫之，尽垩而鼻不伤。郢人立不失容。宋元君闻之，召匠石曰：‘尝试为寡人为之。’匠石曰：‘臣则尝能斫之，虽然，臣之质死久矣！’自夫子之死也，吾无以为质矣！吾无与言之矣！”
管仲有病，桓公问之曰：“仲父之病病矣，可不讳云，至于大病，则寡人恶乎属国而可？”管仲曰：“公谁欲与？”公曰：“鲍叔牙。”曰：“不可。其为人絜廉，善士也；其于不己若者不比之；又一闻人之过，终身不忘。使之治国，上且钩乎君，下且逆乎民。其得罪于君也将弗久矣！”公曰：“然则孰可？”对曰：“勿已则隰朋可。其为人也，上忘而下畔，愧不若黄帝，而哀不己若者。以德分人谓之圣；以财分人谓之贤。以贤临人，未有得人者也；以贤下人，未有不得人者也。其于国有不闻也，其于家有不见也。勿已则隰朋可。”
吴王浮于江，登乎狙之山，众狙见之，恂然弃而走，逃于深蓁。有一狙焉，委蛇攫𢮞，见巧乎王。王射之，敏给搏捷矢。王命相者趋射之，狙执死。王顾谓其友颜不疑曰：“之狙也，伐其巧、恃其便以敖予，以至此殛也。戒之哉！嗟乎！无以汝色骄人哉？”颜不疑归而师董梧，以锄其色，去乐辞显，三年而国人称之。
南伯子綦隐几而坐，仰天而嘘。颜成子入见曰：“夫子，物之尤也。形固可使若槁骸，心固可使若死灰乎？”曰：“吾尝居山穴之中矣。当是时也，田禾一睹我而齐国之众三贺之。我必先之，彼故知之；我必卖之，彼故鬻之。若我而不有之，彼恶得而知之？若我而不卖之，彼恶得而鬻之？嗟乎！我悲人之自丧者；吾又悲夫悲人者；吾又悲夫悲人之悲者；其后而日远矣！”
仲尼之楚，楚王觞之。孙叔敖执爵而立。市南宜僚受酒而祭，曰：“古之人乎！于此言已。”曰：“丘也闻不言之言矣，未之尝言，于此乎言之：市南宜僚弄丸而两家之难解；孙叔敖甘寝秉羽而郢人投兵；丘愿有喙三尺。”彼之谓不道之道，此之谓不言之辩。故德总乎道之所一，而言休乎知之所不知，至矣。道之所一者，德不能同也。知之所不能知者，辩不能举也。名若儒墨而凶矣。故海不辞东流，大之至也。圣人并包天地，泽及天下，而不知其谁氏。是故生无爵，死无谥，实不聚，名不立，此之谓大人。狗不以善吠为良，人不以善言为贤，而况为大乎！夫为大不足以为大，而况为德乎！夫大备矣，莫若天地。然奚求焉，而大备矣！知大备者，无求，无失，无弃，不以物易己也。反己而不穷，循古而不摩，大人之诚！
子綦有八子，陈诸前，召九方歅曰：“为我相吾子，孰为祥。”九方歅曰：“梱也为祥。”子綦瞿然喜曰：“奚若？”曰：“梱也，将与国君同食以终其身。”子綦索然出涕曰：“吾子何为以至于是极也？”九方歅曰：“夫与国君同食，泽及三族，而况父母乎！今夫子闻之而泣，是御福也。子则祥矣，父则不祥。”子綦曰：“歅，汝何足以识之。而梱祥邪？尽于酒肉，入于鼻口矣，而何足以知其所自来！吾未尝为牧而牂生于奥，未尝好田而鹑生于宎，若勿怪，何邪？吾所与吾子游者，游于天地，吾与之邀乐于天，吾与之邀食于地。吾不与之为事，不与之为谋，不与之为怪。吾与之乘天地之诚而不以物与之相撄，吾与之一委蛇而不与之为事所宜。今也然有世俗之偿焉？凡有怪征者必有怪行。殆乎！非我与吾子之罪，几天与之也！吾是以泣也。”无几何而使梱之于燕，盗得之于道，全而鬻之则难，不若刖之则易。于是乎刖而鬻之于齐，适当渠公之街，然身食肉而终。
齧缺遇许由曰：“子将奚之？”曰：“将逃尧。”曰：“奚谓邪？”曰：“夫尧畜畜然仁，吾恐其为天下笑。后世其人与人相食与！夫民不难聚也，爱之则亲，利之则至，誉之则劝，致其所恶则散。爱利出乎仁义，捐仁义者寡，利仁义者众。夫仁义之行，唯且无诚，且假乎禽贪者器。是以一人之断制利天下，譬之犹一覕也。夫尧知贤人之利天下也，而不知其贼天下也。夫唯外乎贤者知之矣。”
有暖姝者，有濡需者，有卷娄者。所谓暖姝者，学一先生之言，则暖暖姝姝而私自说也，自以为足矣，而未知未始有物也。是以谓暖姝者也。濡需者，豕虱是也，择疏鬣长毛，自以为广宫大囿。奎蹄曲隈，乳间股脚，自以为安室利处。不知屠者之一旦鼓臂布草操烟火，而己与豕俱焦也。此以域进，此以域退，此其所谓濡需者也。卷娄者，舜也。羊肉不慕蚁，蚁慕羊肉，羊肉膻也。舜有膻行，百姓悦之，故三徙成都，至邓之虚而十有万家。尧闻舜之贤，举之童土之地，曰：“冀得其来之泽。”舜举乎童土之地，年齿长矣，聪明衰矣，而不得休归，所谓卷娄者也。是以神人恶众至，众至则不比，不比则不利也。故无所甚亲，无所甚疏，抱德炀和，以顺天下，此谓真人。于蚁弃知，于鱼得计，于羊弃意。以目视目，以耳听耳，以心复心。若然者，其平也绳，其变也循。古之真人！以天待之，不以人入天，古之真人！
得之也生，失之也死；得之也死，失之也生：药也。其实堇也，桔梗也，鸡雍也，豕零也，是时为帝者也，何可胜言！
句践也以甲楯三千栖于会稽，唯种也能知亡之所以存，唯种也不知其身之所以愁。故曰：鸱目有所适，鹤胫有所节，解之也悲。故曰：风之过，河也有损焉；日之过，河也有损焉；请只风与日相与守河，而河以为未始其撄也，恃源而往者也。故水之守土也审，影之守人也审，物之守物也审。故目之于明也殆，耳之于聪也殆，心之于殉也殆，凡能其于府也殆，殆之成也不给改。祸之长也兹萃，其反也缘功，其果也待久。而人以为己宝，不亦悲乎！故有亡国戮民无已，不知问是也。故足之于地也践，虽践，恃其所不蹍而后善博也；人之知也少，虽少，恃其所不知而后知天之所谓也。知大一，知大阴，知大目，知大均，知大方，知大信，知大定，至矣！大一通之，大阴解之，大目视之，大均缘之，大方体之，大信稽之，大定持之。尽有天，循有照，冥有枢，始有彼。则其解之也似不解之者，其知之也似不知之也，不知而后知之。其问之也，不可以有崖，而不可以无崖。颉滑有实，古今不代，而不可以亏，则可不谓有大扬搉乎！阖不亦问是已，奚惑然为！以不惑解惑，复于不惑，是尚大不惑。
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