King Xuan of Qi asked Mencius,
“Is it true that Tang banished Jie, and King Wu attacked Zhou?”
Mencius replied,
“Yes, the historical records say so.”
The king pressed further:
“But is it permissible for a subject to kill his ruler?”
Mencius answered firmly:
“One who destroys benevolence is called a ‘thief’; one who violates righteousness is called a ‘mutilator.’ A person who is both thief and mutilator is a ‘solitary man’ – a tyrant abandoned by Heaven and humanity. I have heard of King Wu executing the solitary tyrant Zhou; I have never heard of him ‘assassinating his sovereign.’”
齊宣王問曰：「湯放桀，武王伐紂，有諸？」
孟子對曰：「於傳有之。」
曰：「臣弒其君可乎？」
曰：「賊仁者謂之賊，賊義者謂之殘，殘賊之人謂之一夫。聞誅一夫紂矣，未聞弒君也。」
Note
This exchange, from Mencius: King Hui of Liang II, encapsulates one of Confucianism’s most radical political principles: a ruler who abandons moral virtue forfeits the right to rule. For Mencius, legitimacy flows not from title or lineage, but from ethical conduct and the people’s welfare. When a king becomes a predator of his own people, he ceases to be a “king” and becomes merely a “lone man” or “solitary man” – fair game for righteous overthrow.
This idea, rooted in the Shang dynasty’s justification for toppling the Xia (King Tang banished King Jie), and Zhou dynasty’s justification for toppling the Shang (King Wu sent an expedition against King Zhou), was later echoed by reformers and revolutionaries throughout Chinese history. It established a moral boundary on power: sovereignty is conditional, and tyranny invites its own demise.
The Overthrow of Jie by Tang
Jie was the last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He taxed the people heavily to build extravagant palaces like Qinggong and Yaotai, indulging in wine and revelry with his favorite concubine, Mo Xi, while brutally punishing any ministers who dared to advise him – such as Guan Longpeng. The suffering of the people reached such an extent that they cursed, “When will the sun perish? I would rather die with you!” Here, the people compared Jie to the sun, symbolizing his oppressive rule; their willingness to die alongside him underscored their profound hatred.
Tang, the leader of the Shang tribe, which was subordinate to the Xia, practiced benevolent governance: he appointed capable officials like Yi Yin, reduced taxes, and cared for the populace. This attracted many displaced persons fleeing Jie’s tyranny, gradually strengthening the Shang tribe. Confucian scholars argue that Tang did not commit regicide but instead punished a tyrant who had lost the Mandate of Heaven. Having forfeited public support, Jie no longer deserved to be king, making Tang’s overthrow of Jie both morally justified and in line with the will of the people.
Conquest of Zhou by Wu
King Zhou was the final ruler of the Shang Dynasty, whose brutality equaled or exceeded that of Jie:
- Extravagance: Building luxurious structures like Lutai (Deer Terrace) and a pool of wine surrounded by meat trees, spending lavishly.
- Cruelty: Introducing horrific punishments such as roasting on a red-hot bronze pillar (paoluo), executing loyal ministers like Bi Gan by dismemberment, and imprisoning wise counselors like Jizi.
- Military Aggression: Engaging in prolonged military campaigns against the Dongyi tribes, depleting national resources and imposing heavy burdens on the common folk, leading to widespread hardship.
King Wu of Zhou, son of King Wen of Zhou, inherited his father’s legacy of practicing benevolent governance – “honoring the elderly, being kind to the young” – which led many feudal lords to ally with him. Upon ascending the throne, King Wu continued his father’s mission, uniting various lords and waiting for the opportune moment to attack King Zhou.
The conquest of Zhou by King Wu is also regarded by Confucians as a model of “punishing the wicked and comforting the people.” Both the stories of Tang overthrowing Jie and Wu conquering Zhou illustrate the principle that “those who follow the Way have many supporters, while those who lose the Way find few allies.” A ruler who practices benevolent governance wins the hearts of the people and ensures prosperity; one who rules tyrannically loses popular support and ultimately faces overthrow. This encapsulates the core of Confucian people-centric thought.
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