Wan Zhang asked, “May I ask what the principle is behind scholars not visiting feudal lords?”
Mencius replied, “Those living in the capital are called officials of the marketplace; those living in the rural areas are called officials of the grasslands. Both are considered commoners. A commoner who has not presented a token of submission to become a minister dares not visit a feudal lord; this is in accordance with the rites.”
Wan Zhang asked, “If a commoner is summoned for labor service, he goes; but if a ruler wishes to see him and summons him, he does not go. Why is this?”
Mencius said, “To go for labor service is righteous; to go for an audience is unrighteous. Furthermore, why does the ruler wish to see him?”
Wan Zhang said, “Because of his extensive knowledge, or because of his virtue.”
Mencius said, “If it is for his extensive knowledge, even the Son of Heaven does not summon a teacher, let alone a feudal lord. If it is for his virtue, I have never heard of someone wanting to see a worthy man and summoning him. Duke Mu of Lu frequently visited Zisi, saying, ‘In ancient times, how did the ruler of a state with a thousand chariots befriend scholars?’ Zisi was displeased and said, ‘The ancients said, “serve him,” not “befriend him.”‘ Zisi’s displeasure stemmed from this: ‘In terms of position, you are the ruler and I am the minister; how would I dare befriend the ruler? In terms of virtue, you should serve me; how can you befriend me?’ A ruler of a thousand chariots could not even befriend him, let alone summon him.
When Duke Jing of Qi was hunting, he summoned the gamekeeper with a feathered banner. The gamekeeper did not come, and the Duke was going to execute him. A man of ambition never forgets that he may die in a ditch; a brave man never forgets that he may lose his head. What did Confucius praise in this? He praised that the gamekeeper would not go when summoned improperly.
Wan Zhang asked, “How should a gamekeeper be summoned?”
Mencius said, “With a leather cap. Commoners are summoned with a plain red flag, scholars with a flag with bells, and great officers with a feathered banner. If a gamekeeper is summoned with a great officer’s banner, he would rather die than go. If a commoner is summoned with a scholar’s banner, would he dare to go? How much less would a worthy man go when summoned in a manner unfit for the worthy? Wanting to see a worthy man without using the proper way is like wanting someone to enter but locking the gate. Righteousness is the road; the rites are the gate. Only the gentleman can walk this road and pass through this gate. The Book of Poetry says, ‘The way to Zhou is as smooth as a whetstone, as straight as an arrow; the gentleman walks upon it, the small men look upon it.’”
Wan Zhang asked, “When the ruler summoned Confucius, he would go without waiting for his carriage. Was Confucius wrong, then?”
Mencius said, “Confucius was in office at the time and had official duties; the ruler was summoning him in his capacity as an official.”
Note
This passage from the Wan Zhang II chapter of the Mencius profoundly elucidates the core Confucian political ethics regarding the independent personality of scholars, the etiquette of ruler-minister relations, and the “way of honoring the worthy.” Drawing on historical context and traditional commentaries, we can understand its philosophy through the following dimensions:
- The Independent Personality of Scholars
Mencius begins by establishing the principle that scholars should not visit feudal lords. In ancient times, if a scholar had not presented a token of submission to formally establish a ruler-minister relationship, they were merely “commoners.” This provision granted scholars immense political independence: scholars were not natural appendages to power. Their entry into public service had to be based on the alignment of the “Way,” not the coercion of power. This concept of the “uncalled minister” became an important ideological source for later Chinese intellectuals to maintain an independent and critical spirit. - The Highest Realm of Honoring the Worthy
Through Zisi’s displeasure at Duke Mu of Lu’s desire to “befriend a scholar,” Mencius proposed a highly shocking political ethic. In the Confucian view, a true worthy man possesses a moral authority that transcends secular power. While there is a distinction between ruler and minister in terms of status, in terms of morality, the ruler should “serve” (learn from) the worthy man. If a ruler merely treats a worthy man as a “friend” on equal footing, or even uses a commanding tone to “summon” him, it is essentially a contempt for morality and knowledge. This established the core Confucian principle that “the Way is nobler than political power.” - Procedural Justice and Political Rules
Using the story of Duke Jing of Qi summoning the gamekeeper, Mencius vividly illustrated the importance of “rites” as procedural justice. Different statuses must correspond to different summoning etiquettes; cross-level or misplaced summoning is an insult to one’s personality. Mencius compared “righteousness” to a road and “rites” to a gate, emphasizing that even when a ruler seeks a worthy man, he must follow the proper channels and rules (“Wanting to see a worthy man without using the proper way is like wanting someone to enter but locking the gate”). Finally, Mencius clarified the boundaries of “rites” using the example of Confucius going without waiting for his carriage: Confucius acted so urgently because he was currently holding an office, and the ruler was summoning him according to the “etiquette of his office.” This was legitimate official conduct, fundamentally different from “summoning a worthy man in a manner unfit for the worthy.”
萬章曰：「敢問不見諸侯，何義也？」 孟子曰：「在國曰市井之臣，在野曰草莽之臣，皆謂庶人。庶人不傳質為臣，不敢見於諸侯，禮也。」 萬章曰：「庶人，召之役，則往役；君欲見之，召之，則不往見之，何也？」 曰：「往役，義也；往見，不義也。且君之欲見之也，何為也哉？」 曰：「為其多聞也，為其賢也。」 曰：「為其多聞也，則天子不召師，而況諸侯乎？為其賢也，則吾未聞欲見賢而召之也。繆公亟見於子思，曰：『古千乘之國以友士，何如？』子思不悅，曰：『古之人有言：曰事之云乎，豈曰友之云乎？』子思之不悅也，豈不曰：『以位，則子，君也；我，臣也。何敢與君友也？以德，則子事我者也。奚可以與我友？』千乘之君求與之友，而不可得也，而況可召與？齊景公田，招虞人以旌，不至，將殺之。志士不忘在溝壑，勇士不忘喪其元。孔子奚取焉？取非其招不往也。」 曰：「敢問招虞人何以？」 曰：「以皮冠。庶人以旃，士以旂，大夫以旌。以大夫之招招虞人，虞人死不敢往。以士之招招庶人，庶人豈敢往哉。況乎以不賢人之招招賢人乎？欲見賢人而不以其道，猶欲其入而閉之門也。夫義，路也；禮，門也。惟君子能由是路，出入是門也。《詩》云：『周道如砥，其直如矢；君子所履，小人所視。』」 萬章曰：「孔子，君命召，不俟駕而行。然則孔子非與？」 曰：「孔子當仕有官職，而以其官召之也。」
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