When Cao Cao learned that Liu Bei had taken control of Yizhou (Yi Province, modern Sichuan), he realized that unifying the empire would be impossible without securing the strategic corridor of Hanzhong, which lay directly north of Yizhou.
His advisors urged caution:
“Sun Quan holds the east with Lu Su; Guan Yu guards Jing Province in the south – both are too strong to attack now. Better to strike Zhang Lu in Hanzhong first, then use it as a base to invade Yizhou.”
Cao Cao agreed. In AD 215, he launched a campaign against Hanzhong.
Cao Cao’s move on Hanzhong
Zhang Lu, the “Teacher-Lord” and grandson of Zhang Daoling, founder of the Five Pecks of Rice Taoist sect, had ruled Hanzhong with benevolent theocratic governance. Many refugees had flocked there during the chaos of war. But his forces, long unused to battle, quickly collapsed before Cao Cao’s army. Zhang Lu surrendered.
Cao Cao left Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He, and Xu Huang to garrison Hanzhong and returned to Xuchang. The following year, Emperor Xian enfeoffed him as King of Wei – a clear step toward imperial usurpation.
Cao Cao and the Southern Xiongnu
With the west seemingly pacified, Cao Cao turned to stabilizing relations with the Southern Xiongnu so as to consolidate the north.
When their chieftain, Chanyu Huchuquan, visited the Han court, Cao Cao received him with honors equal to a marquis. They agreed to divide the Xiongnu into five administrative divisions across Bing Province, each led by Huchuquan’s sons – a move that effectively neutralized their threat while preserving nominal loyalty.
This diplomatic success reminded Cao Cao of his old friend Cai Yong, the famed scholar. He learned that Cai’s daughter, Cai Yan (Cai Wenji) – a brilliant poet and musician – had been captured during northern unrest and married to a Xiongnu Left Virtuous King. Cao Cao sent envoys to ransom her. Huchuquan consented, and Cai Yan returned to Han territory, where she devoted herself to preserving her father’s literary legacy.
For a brief moment, Cao Cao hoped to focus on civil governance. But fate – and Liu Bei – would not allow it.
Liu Bei’s ambition
Back in Chengdu, Fa Zheng saw opportunity. Noting that Cao Cao had withdrawn despite easily conquering Hanzhong, he told Liu Bei:
“He didn’t press on to Yizhou because internal instability forced his retreat. Now is our chance! Xiahou Yuan is no match for our generals. Take Hanzhong – it shields Yizhou and opens the path to the Central Plains!”
Liu Bei agreed. Leaving Zhuge Liang in charge of Chengdu, he marched with Fa Zheng to Yangping Pass. Initial clashes went poorly – Xiahou Yuan repelled Liu Bei’s forces repeatedly. Liu Bei, realizing his army was outnumbered, urgently requested reinforcements from Zhuge Liang.
As Liu Bei’s troops swelled, so did Cao Cao’s concern. He personally advanced to Chang’an to oversee the defense.
For months, both sides remained entrenched – neither willing to risk a full engagement.
The turning point: Dingjun Mountain
In early AD 219, Liu Bei shifted his position to Mount Dingjun – a commanding height overlooking Xiahou Yuan’s camp.
Flush with earlier victories, Xiahou Yuan grew arrogant. Learning that the opposing commander was the aged Huang Zhong, he mocked:
“That white-bearded old man? He’s come to die!”
But Cao Cao, knowing Xiahou Yuan’s impulsive nature, had sent urgent warnings:
“Bravery alone is not enough. A true general knows when to be cautious. You lack subtlety – be vigilant!”
Xiahou Yuan ignored the advice. He stationed his elite troops at the mountain’s base, confident Huang Zhong would not dare descend.
Yet this was precisely the trap.
Huang Zhong’s decisive strike
From the summit, Fa Zheng observed the enemy’s lax discipline – soldiers lounging, commanders strolling carelessly. He signaled Huang Zhong:
“Now is the time!”
With drums thundering and war cries shaking the earth, Huang Zhong led a lightning charge down the slope. Xiahou Yuan, caught completely off guard, tried to flee – but the old general overtook him and struck him down with a single blow.
The death of their commander shattered Cao Cao’s army. Survivors fled across the Han River and sent desperate word to Chang’an.
Cao Cao’s countermove and the Raid on Beishan
Enraged, Cao Cao rushed to the front. He stockpiled tens of millions of sacks of grain at Beishan, preparing for a prolonged campaign.
Huang Zhong proposed a bold raid:
“Let me burn their granaries – even if we can’t seize the grain!”
Liu Bei approved, assigning Zhao Yun to provide rear support. Huang Zhong set out at night – but walked into an ambush. Cao Cao, ever wary of supply-line attacks, had laid a trap. Huang Zhong barely escaped, losing half his men.
Zhao Yun’s heroic Rescue
Zhao Yun, waiting past the agreed hour, rode out with only dozens of cavalry. Hearing chaos at Beishan, he charged into the fray, rescuing Huang Zhong and later re-entering the encirclement to save the wounded officer Zhang Zhuo – an act of unmatched valor.
Returning to camp, Zhao Yun faced a new crisis: Zhang He’s main force was advancing. Against all instinct, Zhao Yun ordered:
“Open the gates! Lower the banners! Silence the camp! Archers – prepare to fire on my command!”
Zhang He, seeing the eerily empty camp, suspected an ambush. When scouts were met with sudden volleys of arrows, panic spread. The cry “Zhao Yun is here!” sent Cao’s troops fleeing in disarray.
During their chaotic retreat across the Han River, soldiers trampled and drowned one another in terror.
The next day, Liu Bei visited Zhao Yun’s camp. After hearing the full account, he declared:
“Zhao Zilong is all courage!”
His men hailed him as the “Tiger General.” Liu Bei held a feast in his honor and ordered his army to hold firm:
“Cao Cao cannot endure this stalemate much longer.”
Cao Cao’s withdrawal
Indeed, after months of deadlock, Cao Cao’s army suffered from heat, disease, and desertion. With supplies dwindling and morale collapsing, he sighed and withdrew to Chang’an.
Hanzhong fell to Liu Bei – marking the high point of his career. From this northern bastion, he would soon declare himself King of Hanzhong, laying the foundation for the Shu Han state.
As recorded in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), the Battle of Hanzhong was not won by numbers, but by timing, terrain, daring, and the unmatched loyalty of generals like Huang Zhong and Zhao Yun.
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