Mozi – Chapter 6

Chapter 6: On Moderation in Expenditures

Master Mozi said: “In ancient times, before the people knew how to build houses, they lived on hills and dwelt in caves. Because the dampness from the ground harmed them, the sage kings taught them to construct houses. The rule for building houses was: the height of the room should be sufficient to avoid dampness; the walls should be sufficient to block out wind and cold; the roof should be sufficient to shield against snow, frost, rain, and dew; and the height of the courtyard walls should be sufficient to distinguish the propriety between men and women. Once these standards were met, they stopped. Any expenditure of wealth and labor that did not add to practical benefit was not undertaken. When the ruler conscripted the people to repair city walls, the people were taxed with labor but not harmed; when taxes and levies were collected according to regular norms, the people spent their wealth but did not suffer. What the people truly resented was not this, but excessive extortion by the ruler. Therefore, the sage kings built houses to facilitate life, not for viewing and pleasure; they made clothes, belts, and shoes to fit the body, not to be bizarre or ostentatious. Thus, they were frugal in their own persons and instructed the people accordingly. Consequently, the people of the world could be governed, and wealth and resources could be made sufficient.

The rulers of today, however, are different in their construction of houses. They inevitably extort heavily from the people, violently seizing the wealth meant for the people’s clothing and food, to build palaces and terraces with winding, picturesque views, adorned with green and yellow carvings and paintings. When houses are built like this, their close attendants all imitate them. Consequently, their wealth is insufficient to withstand famines or relieve orphans and widows; thus, the state becomes impoverished and the people are hard to govern. If a ruler truly desires the world to be orderly and hates chaos, he cannot but be moderate in building houses.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to make clothes, they wore animal skins and tied on rush ropes. In winter, though not light, they were warm; in summer, though not light, they were cool. The sage kings thought this did not suit human feelings, so they instructed women to spin silk and hemp, and weave cloth and silk to make clothing for the people. The rule for making clothes was: in winter, the silk should be sufficient to be light and warm; in summer, the hempen cloth should be sufficient to be light and cool. Once these standards were met, they stopped. Therefore, the sages made clothes to fit the body and comfort the skin, and that was enough. It was not to glorify the eyes and ears or to show off to the ignorant masses. At that time, people did not value sturdy carriages and fine horses, nor did they delight in carvings and colorful patterns. Why? Because the path they were guided upon was thus. Therefore, the people’s wealth in clothing and food was sufficient for every household to prepare for droughts, floods, and famines, because they obtained what was truly needed for self-nourishment and were not distracted by external vanities. Thus, the people were frugal and easy to govern, and the ruler’s expenditures were moderate and easy to supply. The treasuries were full, sufficient to prepare for unforeseen events; weapons did not grow dull, and the soldiers and people were not exhausted, sufficient to subdue the disobedient. Therefore, the hegemonic and royal enterprises could be realized in the world.

The rulers of today, however, are different in their making of clothes. Since clothes that are light and warm in winter and light and cool in summer are already complete, they inevitably extort heavily from the people, violently seizing the wealth meant for the people’s clothing and food, to make gorgeous, embroidered, and delicate garments, casting gold for hooks and using pearls and jade for pendants. Women abandon weaving to make colorful patterns, and men leave farming to do carvings, all for their personal attire. This does not add to warmth or comfort. It merely exhausts wealth and labor, dedicating it all to uselessness. Viewed in this light, their making of clothes is not for the body, but entirely for visual appeal. Thus, the people become dissolute and wicked, making them hard to govern, and the ruler becomes extravagant and hard to remonstrate with. When an extravagant ruler governs a dissolute and wicked populace, it is impossible for the state not to fall into chaos. If a ruler truly desires order and hates chaos, he cannot but be moderate in making clothes.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to prepare food, they ate raw plants and lived scattered. Then the sages arose and instructed men to plow, sow, and cultivate to provide food for the people. The purpose of food was merely to increase strength, fill the stomach, strengthen the body, and nourish the belly. Therefore, their expenditures were moderate, their self-nourishment was frugal, the people were rich, and the state was orderly. Today is not so. Rulers extort heavily from the people to prepare delicacies, steamed and roasted fish and turtles. In large states, there are hundreds of dishes; in small states, dozens. Spread across a square zhang, the eyes cannot see them all, the hands cannot grasp them all, and the mouth cannot taste them all. In winter, the food freezes; in summer, it spoils and ferments. When rulers treat food like this, their close attendants imitate them. Thus, the rich and noble are extravagant, while orphans and widows freeze and starve. Even if one wishes to avoid chaos, it is impossible. If a ruler truly desires order and hates chaos, he cannot but be moderate in food and drink.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to make boats and carriages, heavy burdens could not be moved, and distant roads could not be reached. Therefore, the sage kings made boats and carriages to facilitate the people’s affairs. The rule for making them was: they should be complete, sturdy, light, and swift, capable of carrying heavy loads and traveling far. Because they cost little wealth but yielded great benefit, the people were happy and profited from them. Laws and decrees were not harsh yet were carried out; the people were not exhausted, yet the ruler’s needs were met. Thus, the people returned to him. The rulers of today, however, are different in their making of boats and carriages. Since the qualities of being complete, sturdy, light, and swift are already complete, they inevitably extort heavily from the people to decorate them. They decorate carriages with colorful patterns and boats with carvings. Women abandon weaving to make patterns, so the people suffer cold; men leave farming to do carvings, so the people suffer hunger. When rulers make boats and carriages like this, their close attendants imitate them. Thus, hunger and cold arrive together for the people, driving them to wickedness. When wickedness is rampant, punishments become severe; when punishments are severe, the state falls into chaos. If a ruler truly desires order and hates chaos, he cannot but be moderate in making boats and carriages.

Everything between heaven and earth, encompassed within the four seas, possesses the true nature of heaven and earth and the harmony of yin and yang. Even the greatest sage cannot alter them. How do we know this? The sages have handed down teachings: regarding heaven and earth, they speak of high and low; regarding the four seasons, they speak of yin and yang; regarding human feelings, they speak of male and female; regarding beasts and birds, they speak of male and female. This is the true nature of heaven and earth; even the former kings could not alter it. Although the sages of antiquity kept concubines, they did not do so to the extent of harming their conduct; thus, the people had no resentment. There were no confined women in the palace, and thus no unmarried men in the world. With no confined women inside and no unmarried men outside, the population of the world was abundant. The rulers of today, however, keep concubines in the thousands in large states and in the hundreds in small states. Consequently, many men in the world are single and without wives, and many women are confined and without husbands. Men and women miss their proper time for marriage, and thus the population diminishes. If a ruler truly desires a large population and hates a small one, he cannot but be moderate in keeping concubines.

In all these five areas, the sages were frugal and moderate, while petty men were extravagant and dissolute. Frugality and moderation lead to prosperity; extravagance and dissipation lead to ruin. These five areas cannot but be moderated. When husband and wife are moderate, heaven and earth are in harmony; when wind and rain are moderate, the five grains ripen; when clothing is moderate, the skin and body are at ease.”

Note

This Mohist chapter advocates moderation in five spheres: housing, clothing, food, transport and concubines. Sage kings prioritized practical utility, while contemporary rulers’ extravagant ornamentation drains labor and wealth, triggering poverty, social unrest and population decline.

Moderation in Expenditures / Rejecting Extravagance:

A core Mohist doctrine advocating for strict utilitarianism and frugality. Mozi argues that all material production (housing, clothing, food, transport) should strictly serve practical, survival-based needs. Any expenditure beyond basic utility is deemed wasteful and detrimental to the state’s wealth and social stability.

Utilitarian Aesthetics:

The text explicitly rejects aesthetic and ornamental values in material culture. Carvings, colorful patterns, and luxurious fabrics are condemned not merely as moral failings, but as economic drains that directly cause famine, cold, and social unrest by diverting labor from agriculture and weaving.

Regulated Concubinage:

Mozi addresses the demographic crisis caused by the extravagant harem systems of contemporary rulers. By hoarding women, rulers create a shortage of marriageable women, leading to a declining birth rate. He advocates for a regulated, moderate approach to concubinage to ensure population growth, framing it as a matter of statecraft rather than just personal morality.

Sage Kings:

Mozi frequently references the mythical and early historical sage kings (such as Yu the Great) as the ultimate positive models. They are depicted as rulers who established the foundational rules for practical living and governed through personal frugality, resulting in prosperous and orderly states.

Contemporary Rulers:

A collective term for the rulers of Mozi’s own era (the Warring States period). They serve as the universal negative examples, characterized by their heavy taxation, obsession with luxury, and neglect of the people’s basic needs, which inevitably leads to national decline.

The Five Areas of Moderation:

The chapter systematically applies the principle of frugality to five specific domains: housing, clothing, food and drink, boats and carriages, and concubinage. This structured approach highlights the Mohist belief in comprehensive, systemic state management.

Harmony of Heaven and Earth:

The text concludes by linking human moderation to cosmic harmony (“When husband and wife are moderate, heaven and earth are in harmony”). This reflects the ancient Chinese cosmological belief that human socio-political order is intrinsically linked to the natural order and agricultural success.

　　子墨子曰：古之民，未知为宫室时，就陵阜而居，穴而处。下润湿伤民，故圣王作为宫室，为宫室之法，曰：室高足以辟润湿，边足以圉风寒，上足以待雪霜雨露，宫墙之高，足以别男女之礼。谨此则止，凡费财劳力，不加利者，不为也。役修其城郭，则民劳而不伤，以其常正，收其租税，则民费而不病。民所苦者非此也，苦于厚作敛于百姓。是故圣王作为宫室，便于生，不以为观乐也；作为衣服带履便于身，不以为辟怪也。故节于身，诲于民，是以天下之民可得而治，财用可得而足。

　　当今之主，其为宫室，则与此异矣。必厚作敛于百姓，暴夺民衣食之财，以为宫室，台榭曲直之望，青黄刻镂之饰。为宫室若此，故左右皆法象之，是以其财不足以待凶饥、振孤寡，故国贫而民难治也。君实欲天下之治，而恶其乱也，当为宫室，不可不节。

　　古之民，未知为衣服时，衣皮带茭，冬则不轻而温，夏则不轻而凊，圣王以为不中人之情，故作诲妇人，治丝麻，棞布绢，以为民衣。为衣服之法，冬则练帛之中，足以为轻且暖，夏则絺绤之中，足以为轻且凊，谨此则止。故圣人之为衣服，适身体，和肌肤，而足矣。非荣耳目而观愚民也。当是之时，坚车良马不知贵也，刻镂文采，不知喜也。何则？其所道之然。故民衣食之财，家足以待旱水凶饥者，何也？得其所以自养之情，而不感于外也。是以其民俭而易治，其君用财节而易赡也。府库实满，足以待不然，兵革不顿，士民不劳，足以征不服。故霸王之业，可行于天下矣。

　　当今之主，其为衣服，则与此异矣，冬则轻暖，夏则轻凊，皆已具矣，必厚作敛于百姓，暴夺民衣食之财，以为锦绣文采靡曼之衣，铸金以为钩，珠玉以为佩，女工作文采，男工作刻镂，以为身服，此非云益暖之情也。单财劳力，毕归之于无用也，以此观之，其为衣服非为身体，皆为观好，是以其民淫僻而难治，其君奢侈而难谏也。夫以奢侈之君，御好淫僻之民，欲国无乱，不可得也。君实欲天下之治而恶其乱，当为衣服不可不节。

　　古之民未知为饮食时，素食而分处，故圣人作，诲男耕稼树艺，以为民食。其为食也，足以增气充虚，强体养腹而已矣。故其用财节，其自养俭，民富国治。今则不然，厚作敛于百姓，以为美食刍豢，蒸炙鱼鳖，大国累百器，小国累十，前方丈，目不能遍视，手不能遍操，口不能遍味，冬则冻冰，夏则饰饐，人君为饮食如此，故左右象之，是以富贵者奢侈，孤寡者冻馁，虽欲无乱，不可得也。君实欲天下治而恶其乱，当为食饮不可不节。

　　古之民未知为舟车时，重任不移，远道不至，故圣王作为舟车，以便民之事。其为舟车也，全固轻利，可以任重致远，其为用财少，而为利多，是以民乐而利之。法令不急而行，民不劳而上足用，故民归之。当今之主，其为舟车，与此异矣，全固轻利皆已具，必厚作敛于百姓，以饰舟车，饰车以文采，饰舟以刻镂。女子废其纺织而修文采，故民寒；男子离其耕稼而修刻镂，故民饥。人君为舟车若此，故左右象之，是以其民饥寒并至，故为奸邪。奸邪多则刑罚深，刑罚深则国乱。君实欲天下治而恶其乱，当为舟车不可不节。

　　凡回于天地之间，包于四海之内，天壤之情，阴阳之和，莫不有也，虽至圣不能更也。何以知其然？圣人有传：天地也，则曰上下；四时也，则曰阴阳；人情也，则曰男女；禽兽也，则曰牡牝雄雌也。真天壤之情，虽有先王不能更也。虽上世至圣，必蓄私，不以伤行，故民无怨。宫无拘女，故天下无寡夫。内无拘女，外无寡夫，故天下之民众。当今之君，其蓄私也，大国拘女累千，小国累百，是以天下之男多寡无妻，女多拘无夫，男女失时，故民少。君实欲民之众而恶其寡，当蓄私不可不节。

　　凡此五者，圣人之所俭节也，小人之所淫佚也。俭节则昌，淫佚则亡，此五者不可不节。夫妇节而天地和，风雨节而五谷熟，衣服节而肌肤和。