The Master said, “Duke Wen of Jin was crafty but not upright; Duke Huan of Qi was upright but not crafty.”
Note
This statement offers Confucius’s incisive moral comparison between two prominent hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period: Duke Wen of Jin (Chong’er) and Duke Huan of Qi (Xiaobai).
“Crafty” refers to cunning, strategic manipulation, and deceptive tactics; “upright”means acting in accordance with righteousness, with openness and integrity.
Although Duke Wen of Jin achieved hegemony, he often relied on deceit, broken promises, and underhanded schemes (e.g., after receiving hospitality from Chu during exile, he later betrayed his pledge in the Battle of Chengpu). Hence, Confucius judges him as “crafty but not upright.”
Duke Huan, guided by Guan Zhong, rallied the feudal lords under the banner of “honoring the king and repelling the barbarians.” Though he employed political pragmatism, his actions were generally transparent and trustworthy – such as when he refrained from attacking Yan after its ruler inadvertently crossed the border to see him off, and instead ceded territory to uphold propriety. Thus, he is described as “upright but not crafty.”
Through this contrast, Confucius emphasizes that political success alone is insufficient; the means by which one achieves it reveal one’s true moral character. Confucianism upholds “winning people through virtue” and “placing righteousness above all,” rejecting utilitarianism that justifies any means for an end. Duke Huan is praised not for his power, but because his conduct largely adhered to the principles of ritual propriety and trustworthiness. This remark also reflects Confucius’s distinction between “hegemonic rule” (ruling by force) and “royal rule” (true kingship, ruling by virtue) – even among hegemons, moral quality varies significantly.
Further Reading
Zigong said, “Was Guan Zhong not humane? …” The Master said, “… Wasn’t he humane! Wasn’t he humane!” Analects 14.17 (Xian Wen)
Both passages evaluate historical figures by moral standards beyond mere loyalty; Confucius defends Guan Zhong (who served Duke Huan) precisely because his actions upheld righteousness – aligning with the praise of Duke Huan’s “uprightness.”
子曰：「晉文公譎而不正，齊桓公正而不譎。」
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