Chapter 60 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms marks a decisive turning point in the novel’s geopolitical arc. With Cao Cao dominant in the north and Sun Quan entrenched in the east, the vast, fertile province of Yizhou (modern Sichuan) becomes the final prize for aspiring hegemonies.
Sent by the weak governor Liu Zhang to seek Cao Cao’s aid against Zhang Lu of Hanzhong, the sharp-witted official Zhang Song is instead humiliated by Cao Cao’s arrogance. In a moment of literary brilliance, Zhang Song exposes Cao Cao’s vanity by “recognizing” his newly composed military treatise as an ancient commonplace – prompting Cao Cao to destroy his own work in shame. Spurned, Zhang Song turns to Liu Bei, who receives him with humility and respect. Deeply moved, Zhang Song not only reveals the strategic map of Xichuan but actively engineers Liu Bei’s entry into the region.
Though historical records like Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) confirm that Zhang Song and Fa Zheng did defect to Liu Bei and facilitate his takeover of Yizhou, they make no mention of the Mengde Xinshu incident or Zhang Song’s photographic memory – these are Luo Guanzhong’s masterful inventions, designed to contrast Cao Cao’s pride with Liu Bei’s virtue, and to frame the conquest of Shu not as aggression, but as a righteous transfer of power from incompetence to benevolence.
Cao Cao’s arrogance backfires
Zhang Song, chief assistant (biejia) to Liu Zhang, arrives in Xuchang bearing gifts and a proposal: ally with Cao Cao to repel Zhang Lu’s threat from Hanzhong. But Cao Cao, fresh from victories against Ma Chao in the northwest, treats him with contempt – refusing to rise from his seat and dismissing him as a provincial envoy.
To further impress (or intimidate), Yang Xiu, Cao Cao’s chief clerk, shows Zhang Song a copy of Cao Cao’s newly compiled military manual, the Mengde Xinshu (“New Book of Mengde”), claiming it contains original strategies unknown to antiquity.
Zhang Song reads it once – and recites it flawlessly, then declares:
“This is no new work. It was written by an unnamed strategist of the Warring States period. Even children in Shu can recite it!”
Yang Xiu is stunned. When Cao Cao hears this, he angrily tears up the manuscript, convinced it lacks originality.
Historically, the Mengde Xinshu likely never existed – it appears only in the novel. The episode is a moral allegory: Cao Cao’s intellectual pride blinds him to talent, while his rashness destroys his own creation. In contrast, the Sanguozhi notes that Cao Cao did reject Zhang Song due to his unimpressive appearance, confirming the core slight – but not the literary flourish.
Virtue wins a strategist
Disillusioned, Zhang Song travels to Jing Province, where Liu Bei greets him at the city gate, treats him as an honored guest, and hosts days of sincere conversation. Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong also engage him with deep respect.
Touched by this humility – especially compared to Cao Cao’s disdain – Zhang Song reveals his true intent. He produces a detailed map of Xichuan, showing mountains, passes, granaries, and troop deployments, and urges:
“Liu Zhang is weak and indecisive. The people long for a wise ruler. This land is yours for the taking.”
Though Liu Bei hesitates, citing his kinship with Liu Zhang (both claimed descent from the Han imperial clan), Pang Tong presses him:
“Great deeds require decisive action. Delay invites disaster.”
Historically, Zhang Song did advocate for Liu Bei’s entry into Yizhou, and Fa Zheng later confirmed the opportunity. The Sanguozhi states plainly:
“Zhang Song and Fa Zheng both admired Liu Bei’s magnanimity and secretly plotted to hand over Yizhou to him.”
The moral conflict over “betraying kin” is amplified in the novel to highlight Liu Bei’s reluctant realism beneath his Confucian idealism.
Fa Zheng’s secret counsel
Back in Chengdu, Zhang Lu mobilizes troops toward the northern border, terrifying Liu Zhang. At Zhang Song’s urging, Liu Zhang sends Fa Zheng – another brilliant but underused advisor – to invite Liu Bei into Yizhou as a defensive ally.
Fa Zheng meets Liu Bei in private and delivers a blunt assessment:
- Yizhou is rich in grain, population, and natural defenses.
- Liu Zhang is incapable of ruling or defending it.
- Now is the perfect moment to seize it before Cao Cao or Sun Quan intervenes.
Pang Tong echoes this:
“This is the foundation of empire. Do not miss it!”
Liu Bei finally consents. He leads a modest force westward under the guise of aiding Liu Zhang – but with conquest in mind.
Historically, Liu Bei entered Yizhou in 211 CE with Liu Zhang’s permission, but tensions escalated over the next three years, culminating in open war. The novel compresses this into a clear narrative arc: invitation becomes infiltration, alliance becomes annexation.
The unfolding of destiny: Shu’s rise begins
With Liu Bei marching toward Chengdu, the tripartite balance shifts irrevocably:
- Cao Cao loses a chance to dominate the southwest due to his arrogance.
- Sun Quan watches anxiously, fearing Liu Bei’s expansion.
- Liu Zhang, trusting and naive, unknowingly opens his gates to his successor.
Thus begins the conquest of Shu – the critical step that transforms Liu Bei from a wandering warlord into a sovereign, and sets the stage for the formal establishment of the Shu Han state.
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