In 211 AD, following Cao Cao’s consolidation of power in central China, he ordered Zhong Yao, Inspector of Sili, and Xiahou Yuan, General Who Protects the West, to assemble troops for a campaign ostensibly aimed at Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. However, the warlords of Guanzhong (the Guanzhong Plain) – notably Ma Chao and Han Sui – interpreted this as a veiled move to subjugate their own territories in Liangzhou and the western frontier.
Fearing encirclement, ten regional commanders – including Zhang Heng, Liang Xing, Yang Qiu, Hou Xuan, Cheng Yin, Li Kan, Ma Wan, and Cheng Yi – united under Ma Chao and Han Sui, raising an army of over 100,000 men.
As recorded in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, Han Sui dismissed his officer Yan Xing’s warning against allying with Ma Chao, declaring:
“All these generals have risen without prior consultation – it must be the will of Heaven.”
They elected Han Sui as commander-in-chief, marched east, and fortified positions at Huayin, Tong Pass(Tongguan), and along the Wei River, blocking Cao Cao’s eastern approach into Guanzhong.
The strategic significance of Tong Pass
Tong Pass was one of the most formidable chokepoints in ancient China. Nestled on the southern bank of the Yellow River, flanked by rugged gullies to the south and torrential waters to the north, it was famed as a place where “one man could hold off ten thousand.”
For Ma Chao’s coalition, the strategy was clear:
- Garrison Tong Pass lightly but firmly.
- Secure the Puban ferry crossing upstream to prevent flanking maneuvers.
If executed properly, Cao Cao’s advance would stall indefinitely.
Cao Cao’s feint and the flanking gambit
Upon arriving at Tong Pass with reinforcements – including Zhu Ling and Li Dian – Cao Cao faced a stalemate. But rather than force a frontal assault, he devised a masterful deception.
He first publicly massed troops at Tong Pass, drawing the full attention of Ma Chao and Han Sui. Meanwhile, he consulted Xu Huang, who proposed a bold plan:
“Send elite forces across the Yellow River at Puban, establish a beachhead west of the river, and threaten the enemy’s rear.”
Cao Cao approved. Xu Huang and Zhu Ling led 4,000 crack troops across the river. Though Liang Xing was dispatched with 5,000 men to intercept them, the Wu forces were routed, allowing Cao Cao to establish a fortified camp on the western (left) bank – now inside Guanzhong territory.
This move rendered Tong Pass strategically obsolete.
The Perilous Crossing at the south: Cao Cao’s narrow escape
With a foothold secured west of the river, Cao Cao prepared to shift his main army across. In a daring maneuver, he ordered most troops to cross first, while he and Xu Chu remained behind with only about 100 men.
At that moment, Ma Chao launched a surprise attack with over 10,000 cavalry and infantry. Chaos erupted. Soldiers scrambled onto boats, threatening to capsize them. Xu Chu, ever loyal, used one hand to slash at climbers and the other to shield Cao Cao with a horse saddle, deflecting arrows.
Seeing the crisis, Colonel Ding Fei released the army’s herds of cattle and horses onto the battlefield. The undisciplined rebel soldiers, lured by plunder, abandoned the chase to seize livestock, allowing Cao Cao to escape.
When his generals on the northern bank saw him safe, many wept with relief. Cao Cao, ever theatrical, laughed:
“Today I was nearly trapped by a petty bandit!”
Strategic Mastery: Cao Cao explains his ruse
Later, an officer asked:
“The enemy held Tong Pass but left the north bank undefended. Why didn’t we cross at Puban immediately, instead of wasting months at Tong Pass?”
Cao Cao replied with characteristic clarity:
“Had we moved our main force toward Puban first, the rebels would have reinforced the crossing, making it impossible to land. By feigning a direct assault on Tong Pass, I forced them to commit all their strength to the south – leaving the north vulnerable. That is why Xu Huang and Zhu Ling crossed so easily.”
This explanation, preserved in Records of the Three Kingdoms, underscores Cao Cao’s genius: victory through psychological manipulation, not brute force.
Aftermath and Legacy
Although Ma Chao achieved a tactical victory in the chaotic river skirmish, Cao Cao had already won the strategic game. With his army now west of the Yellow River, he advanced into Zuopingyi (Left Fengyi Commandery), forcing Ma Chao and Han Sui to retreat to Weikou and rebuild defenses.
The stage was set for the next phase: Cao Cao’s exploitation of rifts between Ma Chao and Han Sui, using forged letters and sowing distrust – a psychological campaign that would ultimately shatter the coalition.
Leave a Reply