In Chapter 57 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a clandestine conspiracy unfolds in the heart of Cao Cao’s capital. Huang Kui, an imperial secretary, secretly allies with the veteran general Ma Teng to assassinate the powerful warlord Cao Cao, whom they view as a usurper threatening the Han dynasty.
However, the plot is compromised not by spies or soldiers, but by personal desire. Huang Kui’s concubine, Li Chunxiang, is having an illicit affair with his brother-in-law, Miao Ze. Upon learning of the assassination plan, Li Chunxiang reveals it to her lover. Seeing an opportunity, Miao Ze betrays his own sister’s husband – not out of loyalty to the state, but to claim Li Chunxiang as his wife.
He rushes to Cao Cao and exposes the entire scheme. Cao Cao acts swiftly: Huang Kui, Ma Teng, and their entire families are executed, their blood staining the streets of Xuchang.
The irony of reward: Justice or Expediency?
Believing he has done Cao Cao a great service – and convinced his treachery will be rewarded – Miao Ze petitions Cao Cao to grant him Li Chunxiang in marriage. He expects gratitude, perhaps even promotion.
Instead, Cao Cao stares at him in cold contempt and declares:
“You betrayed your own kin for lust. Such a man is utterly without righteousness!”
Without hesitation, Cao Cao orders both Miao Ze and Li Chunxiang beheaded in the marketplace – a public execution meant to send a clear message.
Cao Cao’s calculated cruelty: The mask of virtue
This episode masterfully illustrates Cao Cao’s dual nature: pragmatic yet performative, ruthless yet image-conscious.
Though he uses Miao Ze’s betrayal to crush a deadly threat, he cannot afford to appear to reward disloyalty. In an era where alliances hinge on trust and reputation, publicly condemning betrayal – even while benefiting from it – reinforces Cao Cao’s authority as a moral arbiter.
His execution of Miao Ze is not justice – it is political theater. By labeling Miao Ze “unrighteous”, Cao Cao positions himself as the guardian of ethical order, even as he manipulates that order for his own survival.
At its core, the story serves as a Confucian parable embedded within historical fiction. Miao Ze embodies the ultimate petty man: driven by lust, devoid of filial piety, and willing to sacrifice family for fleeting pleasure.
His fate echoes the ancient adage:
“He who does much wrong shall surely bring about his own downfall.”
Even in the chaotic Three Kingdoms period – where realpolitik often trumps virtue – the narrative insists that moral transgressions carry consequences. Betrayal may yield short-term gain, but it invites inevitable ruin.
A cautionary tale in the age of warlords
The brief but potent tale of Miao Ze is more than a subplot; it is a moral anchor in a novel filled with shifting loyalties and bloody ambition. Through his swift rise and fall, Luo Guanzhong reminds readers that in both peace and war, integrity – or the lack thereof – defines one’s legacy.
And for Cao Cao, the episode reaffirms his chilling maxim from earlier in the novel:
“I would rather betray the world than let the world betray me.”
Yet here, he lets the world believe he upholds righteousness – even as he wields betrayal like a blade.
History vs. Fiction
In the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Ma Teng is portrayed as answering Cao Cao’s summons to the capital with a hidden agenda: he secretly conspires with Huang Kui to assassinate Cao Cao. However, due to Miao Ze’s betrayal, the plot is exposed, and Ma Teng is captured and executed by Cao Cao. This narrative sets the stage for Ma Chao’s righteous uprising – framed as an act of filial vengeance for his father’s murder.
However, historical records tell a starkly different story. According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), in 208 CE, Ma Teng accepted Cao Cao’s invitation to serve at court. Cao Cao appointed him Minister of the Guards and also brought Ma Teng’s sons – Ma Xiu and Ma Tie – into official positions. The entire Ma family relocated to Ye City (Yecheng), effectively serving as hostages to ensure Ma Chao’s loyalty in Liangzhou. Crucially, there is no historical evidence that Ma Teng ever plotted to assassinate Cao Cao.
Consequently, the character of Miao Ze is entirely fictional, invented by Luo Guanzhong to dramatize the moral and political tensions of the era. His betrayal and subsequent execution serve the novel’s thematic emphasis on loyalty, retribution, and cosmic justice—but he has no basis in historical fact.
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