Zizhang said, “A scholar, when facing danger, must be ready to give up his life; when facing profit, he must think of whether it is in accordance with Righteousness; when participating in sacrifices, he must be reverent; and when attending mourning, he must be sorrowful. If he can do these things, he is indeed a true scholar.”
Note
This passage presents Zizhang’s core moral standards for the “scholar” (Shi, referring to ancient intellectuals or officials). Covering four dimensions – life and death, profit, faith, and emotion – it reflects the comprehensive requirements of Confucianism for the character of a gentleman:
- View on Life and Death, and Righteousness vs. Profit:
“Facing danger and giving up one’s life” and “thinking of Righteousness when facing profit” are the core values of Confucianism. In the Confucian view, personal life and material interests must be subordinate to higher moral principles (Righteousness). When the state or the Way faces a crisis, a scholar must have a spirit of sacrifice; when facing wealth and temptation, one must measure choices against a moral bottom line. - The Authenticity of Inner Emotions:
“Reverence in sacrifices” and “sorrow in mourning” emphasize that morality is not merely an external norm, but the true expression of inner feelings. Confucius strongly opposed hypocritical etiquette. Zizhang points out here that a true scholar must possess genuine awe and grief when participating in sacrifices and mourning. Rituals without true feelings are merely empty performances. - The Baseline Requirement of Unity Between Knowledge and Action:
Zizhang summarizes with “he is indeed a true scholar” (meaning ‘this is sufficient’), indicating that these four points do not demand a person to become a flawless sage, but rather represent the minimum baseline and passing grade for being a “scholar.”
The core of this thought lies in “adhering to Righteousness” and “sincere reverence.” It teaches people to hold onto their principles when facing extreme tests (life and death, profit), and to maintain true feelings in daily rituals, internalizing external moral norms into personal spiritual beliefs.
Further Reading
The Master said, “When a ruler is not tolerant, when he performs ceremonies without reverence, and when he mourns without sorrow, how can I bear to look upon him?”
— The Analects, Chapter 3.26
The Master said, “When seeing profit, think of Righteousness; when facing danger, be ready to give up one’s life; when an old agreement is tested, do not forget the words of a lifetime. Such a person can be considered a complete man.”
— The Analects, Chapter 14.12
The Master said, “The determined scholar and the Benevolent man will not seek to live at the expense of injuring Benevolence. They will even sacrifice their lives to preserve Benevolence complete.”
— The Analects, Chapter 15.9
These chapters collectively construct the behavioral norms of Confucianism for “scholars” or “gentlemen” in extreme situations and daily rituals. Whether it is Zizhang’s proposal of “giving up one’s life when facing danger and thinking of Righteousness when facing profit,” Confucius’ definition of a “complete man,” or his praise of “sacrificing one’s life for Benevolence,” their core logic is highly consistent: Confucianism emphasizes that in the ultimate tests of life, death, and profit, moral principles (Righteousness and Benevolence) have absolute priority. At the same time, they jointly prove that Confucian rituals are by no means hypocritical formalism, but must be centered on true emotions such as “reverence” and “sorrow.” Only by achieving a high degree of unity between external behavior and inner emotions can one be considered a true gentleman.
子張曰：「士見危致命，見得思義，祭思敬，喪思哀，其可已矣。」
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