Wan Zhang asked, “Did Emperor Yao give the empire to Shun? Is this true?”
Mencius replied, “No. The Son of Heaven cannot give the empire to another.”
Wan Zhang asked, “Then, who gave the empire to Shun?”
Mencius said, “Heaven gave it to him.”
Wan Zhang asked, “When Heaven gives it, does it do so with earnest and repeated verbal commands?”
Mencius said, “No. Heaven does not speak; it simply reveals its will through actions and events.”
Wan Zhang asked, “How does Heaven reveal its will through actions and events?”
Mencius said, “The Son of Heaven can recommend a person to Heaven, but he cannot force Heaven to give the empire to that person. A feudal lord can recommend a person to the Son of Heaven, but he cannot force the Son of Heaven to grant him a fief. A minister can recommend a person to a feudal lord, but he cannot force the feudal lord to grant him a position. In the past, Yao recommended Shun to Heaven, and Heaven accepted him; he presented Shun to the people, and the people accepted him. Therefore, I say that Heaven does not speak, but reveals its will through actions and events.”
Wan Zhang asked, “May I ask what is meant by Heaven accepting him when recommended, and the people accepting him when presented?”
Mencius said, “When he was appointed to preside over sacrifices and the hundred spirits enjoyed the offerings, this was Heaven accepting him. When he was appointed to administer affairs and the affairs were well-governed, and the people were at peace, this was the people accepting him. Since Heaven gave it to him and the people gave it to him, I say that the Son of Heaven cannot give the empire to another. Shun assisted Yao for twenty-eight years; this was beyond human power, it was the will of Heaven. After Yao’s death and the completion of the three-year mourning period, Shun withdrew to the south of the Southern River to avoid Yao’s son. However, the feudal lords from all over the empire who came to pay respects went to Shun, not to Yao’s son; those who had lawsuits went to Shun, not to Yao’s son; and those who sang praises sang praises to Shun, not to Yao’s son. Therefore, I say it was the will of Heaven. Only then did he return to the Central States and ascend the throne. Had he taken residence in Yao’s palace and forced Yao’s son to yield, it would have been usurpation, not a gift from Heaven. The Great Oath says, ‘Heaven sees as my people see; Heaven hears as my people hear.’ This is exactly what it means.”
Note
This passage from the Wan Zhang I chapter of the Mencius is one of the most core discussions on the “legitimacy of political power” in Confucian political philosophy. Drawing on historical context and traditional commentaries, we can understand its philosophy through the following dimensions:
- The Transcendent Source of Political Legitimacy: “Heaven Gave It”
Here, Mencius completely negated the political view of “private transfer of power by the Son of Heaven.” In Mencius’s view, the empire is a public vessel, not the private property of the Son of Heaven; therefore, Yao could not give the empire to Shun as a gift. The transfer of political power must have a supreme arbiter that transcends individual will, and this arbiter is “Heaven.” This discourse elevated the source of political power from “human” to “Heaven,” establishing a sacred and transcendent dimension for political legitimacy. - The Empirical Expression of “Heaven’s Will”: “The People Accepted Him”
Since “Heaven” is formless and silent, how can we know that “Heaven accepted him”? Mencius provided a highly practical standard: “presiding over sacrifices and the spirits enjoying the offerings” and “administering affairs so that they are well-governed and the people are at peace.” The former is recognition on the religious and ritual level, while the latter is the test of political governance. Mencius further pointed out that the flow of feudal lords paying respects, filing lawsuits, and singing praises is the concrete manifestation of Heaven’s will. Here, “Heaven’s will” is no longer an unfathomable mysticism, but is thoroughly empiricized and secularized into “public opinion.” - The Pinnacle of Confucian People-Oriented Thought: “Heaven Sees as My People See”
By finally quoting the Great Oath, “Heaven sees as my people see; Heaven hears as my people hear,” Mencius completed one of the greatest logical leaps in Confucian political philosophy. He equated the lofty “Mandate of Heaven” with the grassroots “hearts of the people.” This means that a ruler’s legitimacy depends neither on the personal preferences of the predecessor nor on mysterious divine oracles, but entirely on the support of the people and their peaceful, prosperous lives. This thought not only provided the theoretical basis for the legitimacy of later “revolutions” (such as the revolutions of Tang and Wu) but also became the most powerful voice in ancient China for limiting monarchical power and emphasizing people-oriented governance.
萬章曰：「堯以天下與舜，有諸？」
孟子曰：「否。天子不能以天下與人。」
「然則舜有天下也，孰與之？」
曰：「天與之。」
「天與之者，諄諄然命之乎？」
曰：「否。天不言，以行與事示之而已矣。」
曰：「以行與事示之者如之何？」
曰：「天子能薦人於天，不能使天與之天下；諸侯能薦人於天子，不能使天子與之諸侯；大夫能薦人於諸侯，不能使諸侯與之大夫。昔者堯薦舜於天而天受之，暴之於民而民受之，故曰：天不言，以行與事示之而已矣。」
曰：「敢問薦之於天而天受之，暴之於民而民受之，如何？」
曰：「使之主祭而百神享之，是天受之；使之主事而事治，百姓安之，是民受之也。天與之，人與之，故曰：天子不能以天下與人。舜相堯二十有八載，非人之所能為也，天也。堯崩，三年之喪畢，舜避堯之子於南河之南。天下諸侯朝覲者，不之堯之子而之舜；訟獄者，不之堯之子而之舜；謳歌者，不謳歌堯之子而謳歌舜，故曰天也。夫然後之中國，踐天子位焉。而居堯之宮，逼堯之子，是篡也，非天與也。《太誓》曰：『天視自我民視，天聽自我民聽』，此之謂也。」
Leave a Reply