In early 194 AD, Cao Cao launched his second punitive expedition against Xuzhou, targeting Tao Qian, whom he blamed for the murder of his father, Cao Song. His forces advanced deep into Xuzhou, capturing cities and inflicting heavy casualties.
However, in April 194 AD, disaster struck. Zhang Miao, the Governor of Chenliu, and Chen Gong, one of Cao Cao’s key advisors, rebelled. They opened the gates of Yanzhou to Lü Bu, the formidable warrior recently expelled from Dong Zhuo’s inner circle.
With Cao Cao’s army deep in Xuzhou, Yanzhou collapsed. Most commanderies defected to Lü Bu, leaving Cao Cao with only three loyal cities: Juancheng, Fan, and Dong’e. This betrayal forced Cao Cao to abandon his campaign and rush back to defend his heartland.
Also in April 194 AD, in the western frontier, Ma Teng, the warlord of Liangzhou, marched on Chang’an in alliance with Han Sui, seeking to challenge the Li Jue and Guo Si regime that had seized control after Dong Zhuo’s assassination.
However, Ma Teng was defeated at Changping Pass by Li Jue’s forces, commanded by Guo Si and Fan Chou. This defeat crushed Ma Teng’s immediate ambitions in the Central China and forced him to retreat back to Liangzhou, temporarily securing Li Jue’s hold on the imperial court.
In July 194 AD, Liu Yan, the long-serving Governor of Yizhou, died—possibly from illness or, as some sources suggest, from burning himself in a misguided Daoist ritual to pray for longevity.
His death created a power vacuum in the remote but wealthy Sichuan Basin. The Han court, still under Li Jue’s control, appointed Liu Yan’s son, Liu Zhang, as the new Governor of Yizhou.
Meanwhile, Zhang Lu, who had been entrusted with governing Hanzhong Commandery, declared independence. He killed the Han-appointed inspector, Zhang Xiu, and established a theocratic state based on the Five Pecks of Rice Daoist sect. From this point, Hanzhong became a separate entity, no longer under Yizhou’s control, setting the stage for future conflicts.
In August 194 AD, Cao Cao returned to Yanzhou and clashed with Lü Bu at Puyang. The battle was fierce and indecisive. At one point, Cao Cao’s forces set fire to the city’s gate, but Lü Bu’s cavalry launched a devastating counterattack, nearly killing Cao Cao himself.
Soon after, a catastrophic locust plague swept across Yanzhou, destroying crops and causing widespread famine. Both Cao Cao and Lü Bu, starving and unable to sustain their armies, were forced to cease hostilities temporarily. This natural disaster spared both sides from immediate collapse and marked a grim turning point in the war.
By September 194 AD, the fragile alliance between Li Jue and Guo Si, the two warlords controlling Chang’an and the Han Emperor Xian, began to unravel.
According to the Zizhi Tongjian, Guo Si’s wife, paranoid and jealous, convinced her husband that Li Jue planned to abduct him using a beauty trap. This sparked mutual suspicion, and by autumn, the two former allies were openly at war.
Their armies clashed in the streets of Chang’an, turning the capital into a battlefield. The emperor and court officials were caught in the crossfire, and the city was plundered and burned. This internal strife further weakened the central government, making it a mere puppet in the hands of warring factions.
In October 194 AD, Liu Yao, the Inspector of Yangzhou, relocated his administration from the unstable north to Qu’a (modern-day Danyang, Jiangsu), a city in the southern part of Yangzhou.
Qu’a became his new stronghold, from which he sought to assert control over the Jiangdong (Lower Yangtze) region. This move laid the foundation for future conflicts with Sun Ce, who would later conquer Jiangdong under Yuan Shu’s banner.
In December 194 AD, Tao Qian, the Governor of Xuzhou, died of illness at the age of 63.
Before his death, he declared that only Liu Bei could stabilize Xuzhou. Following his wish, Mi Zhu and other officials invited Liu Bei, who was stationed in Xiaopei, to take over.
Liu Bei, initially hesitant due to threats from Cao Cao, Lü Bu, and Yuan Shu, was persuaded by Chen Deng and Kong Rong to accept. With Yuan Shao’s tacit approval, Liu Bei moved to Xuzhou city and assumed the title of Governor of Xuzhou.
This marked Liu Bei’s first major territorial acquisition and the beginning of his journey as an independent warlord.
Conclusion
The year 194 AD was a watershed moment in Chinese history. In just twelve months:
- Cao Cao nearly lost everything but survived to reclaim Yan Province.
- Lü Bu briefly rose to power before being driven out.
- Liu Bei took his first step toward greatness.
- Liu Zhang inherited Yi Province, while Zhang Lu broke away in Hanzhong.
- Li Jue and Guo Si destroyed Chang’an from within.
- Ma Teng was defeated in the west.
- Liu Yao established a new base in the south.
These events shattered any remaining unity of the Han Empire and set the stage for the Three Kingdoms period.
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