In a previous article, we discussed why Chen Gong betrayed Cao Cao. Today, let’s explore why Zhang Miao was also persuaded to join the rebellion and betray Cao Cao.
The early friendship
Before we examine Zhang Miao’s betrayal, we must first understand the depth of his bond with Cao Cao. Zhang Miao, Cao Cao, and Yuan Shao were close companions since childhood. When the Campaign Against Dong Zhuo erupted in 190 AD, they stood together as allies in the coalition of regional lords.
Zhang Miao and Cao Cao shared an especially profound friendship. After Cao Cao’s failed assassination attempt on Dong Zhuo, he fled the capital Luoyang, hunted and alone. Instead of seeking refuge with his powerful ally Yuan Shao or returning to his hometown to raise troops, Cao Cao chose to go directly to Zhang Miao, who was then Governor of Chenliu.
Zhang Miao not only sheltered Cao Cao but also provided him with troops and territory to launch his rebellion. This act of loyalty underscores the deep mutual trust between them.
Later, when Cao Cao launched a major campaign against Tao Qian in Xuzhou, he left Yan Province vulnerable. Trusting Zhang Miao implicitly, Cao Cao placed his entire family under Zhang Miao’s protection, even instructing his wife:
“If I do not return, go to rely on Mengzhuo (Zhang Miao).”
Such a statement reveals Cao Cao’s belief that Zhang Miao was not just an ally, but a brother in arms and a guardian of his family. Yet, this very man would soon join the rebellion that nearly destroyed Cao Cao’s power base.
The rift with Yuan Shao and a threat to survival
The first major factor that drove Zhang Miao toward betrayal was his growing conflict with Yuan Shao, Cao Cao’s powerful ally.
Initially, Zhang Miao and Yuan Shao were close friends. But during the campaign against Dong Zhuo, as Yuan Shao assumed the role of Commander-in-Chief of the Coalition, he grew arrogant and domineering. Zhang Miao, known for his blunt honesty, openly criticized Yuan Shao’s conduct.
This infuriated Yuan Shao, who, in a fit of rage, ordered Cao Cao to assassinate Zhang Miao.
At the time, Cao Cao was still dependent on Yuan Shao’s support. Yet, he refused the order, rebuking Yuan Shao:
“Zhang Miao is an old friend. Even if he is at fault, we should forgive him. In these chaotic times, we must not turn on one another.”
While Cao Cao’s defiance saved Zhang Miao for the moment, it did not erase the danger. Zhang Miao knew that Cao Cao was still subordinate to Yuan Shao, and that Cao Cao’s loyalty to him might not survive Yuan Shao’s continued pressure.
Later, when Lü Bu—after aiding Yuan Shao against the Heishan bandits—was nearly killed due to Yuan Shao’s suspicion, he fled and passed through Zhang Miao’s territory. Zhang Miao welcomed him warmly, and the two formed a bond. When Yuan Shao learned of this, his hatred for Zhang Miao deepened.
Zhang Miao lived in constant fear: if Cao Cao remained Yuan Shao’s ally, could he truly be safe? Even Cao Cao’s protection might one day be withdrawn under Yuan Shao’s command especially when Cao Cao now became his boss after seizing the Yanzhou with the help of Chen Gong.
Chen Gong’s rebellion & grievances of the Yanzhou Gentry
The second reason lies in the rising discontent among the local elite of Yan Province(Yanzhou), which Chen Gong skillfully exploited.
Chen Gong, himself a native scholar-official, turned against Cao Cao after Cao executed Bian Rang, a prominent intellectual and Chen Gong’s close friend. Cao Cao’s broader policy of marginalizing and suppressing the local gentry—favoring his own loyalists over native elites—fueled widespread resentment.
In the late Han dynasty, regional power was deeply tied to local aristocratic families. Successful warlords like Liu Biao in Jing Province secured control by allying with powerful clans such as the Cai and Kuai families.
Cao Cao, however, was different. He rose through military conquest—defeating the Yellow Turbans from Qingzhou and seizing Yan Province by force. He had no intention of sharing power with the local elite, and instead began crushing dissent.
Chen Gong used this discontent to rally support. As a native of Yan Province and Governor of Chenliu, Zhang Miao was a natural target for recruitment. Chen Gong appealed to Zhang Miao’s regional identity and loyalty to his people, framing the rebellion not as treason, but as a defense of Yan Province’s dignity and autonomy.
The role of Zhang Chao
The third and perhaps most personal reason was family obligation.
Zhang Miao’s younger brother, Zhang Chao, served as Governor of Guangling and had fought alongside the coalition against Dong Zhuo. In 194 AD, while Cao Cao was campaigning in Xuzhou, Zhang Chao joined Chen Gong, Xu Si, and Wang Kai in a secret plot to rebel.
Historical records indicate that the conspiracy began with Zhang Chao and Chen Gong, who then sought to bring Zhang Miao into the fold. This suggests that Zhang Miao was not initially part of the plan—he was persuaded later.
As the elder brother and a fellow native official in Yan Province, Zhang Miao faced an impossible choice: remain loyal to Cao Cao and betray his own family, or join his brother and risk everything.
In the end, filial and fraternal loyalty tipped the balance. With his brother already committed to the rebellion, Zhang Miao had little choice but to join. His position as Governor of Chenliu gave the rebellion a critical stronghold and legitimacy.
The collapse of trust in a time of chaos
Zhang Miao’s betrayal was not born of ambition or malice, but of fear, principle, and family loyalty. He was caught between Yuan Shao’s deadly grudge, Cao Cao’s oppressive rule over the gentry, and his brother’s active rebellion.
Though the uprising—led by Chen Gong and Lü Bu—initially succeeded in seizing most of Yan Province, Cao Cao eventually crushed the rebellion after a brutal two-year war. Zhang Miao, defeated and on the run, was murdered by a subordinate in 195 AD. His brother Zhang Chao and family were later killed when Cao Cao captured their stronghold at Yongqiu.
Zhang Miao’s tragic end underscores a central theme of the Three Kingdoms era: even the deepest friendships could not withstand the tides of power, fear, and survival.
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