Canon 3: Deception Through False Resemblance
Affairs of false resemblance are the reason why rulers misapply punishment, and the means by which ministers accomplish their private ends. Thus, a gatekeeper spilled water, and Yi She was executed; Lord Jiyang forged a royal decree, and two men were condemned; Sima Xi killed Yuan Qian, and Ji Xin was put to death; Zheng Xiu spoke of a foul smell, and the new concubine had her nose cut off; Fei Wuji instructed Xi Wan, and the Chief Minister had him killed; Chen Xu killed Zhang Shou, and Xishou was forced to flee. Hence, burning a fodder store led to the punishment of a prince in Zhongshan, while killing an old Confucian scholar brought reward to Lord Jiyang.
Note
This excerpt is from “Canon Three: Plausible Resemblances” in Han Feizi · Inner Congeries Part II‑Six Subtleties. The most practical of the Six Subtleties, it unveils a sophisticated frame‑up trick: instead of direct slander, fabricate scenes to prompt the ruler to draw false conclusions on his own.
Yi She and the Gatekeeper:
Yi She (夷射) was a mid-rank official of the state of Qi. After drinking with the king, he leaned against a palace gate while drunk. A gatekeeper who had been punished by having his foot amputated (刖刑) asked Yi She for leftover wine. Yi She rudely rebuffed him: “Get away! A punished criminal dares to beg wine from a nobleman?” After Yi She left, the gatekeeper poured water at the spot where Yi She had stood, making it look like someone had urinated there. The next morning, the king saw the puddle and demanded to know who had done it. The gatekeeper replied: “I did not see it, but yesterday Yi She stood here.” The king concluded that Yi She had urinated there and had him executed. The gatekeeper never told a single lie – “I did not see it” was true, and “Yi She stood here” was true – but the combination produced a devastatingly false conclusion.
Lord Jiyang and the Forged Decree:
Lord Jiyang (济阳君) of Wei had two political rivals. He secretly forged a royal decree ordering an attack on himself, then reported it to the king. When the king asked who might be behind it, Lord Jiyang named his two rivals. The king had them executed. This illustrates how fabricating a crisis and then pointing to one’s enemies as the cause can eliminate rivals without ever directly accusing them.
Sima Xi and the Murder of Yuan Qian:
Sima Xi (司马喜) was a minister of the small state of Zhongshan. When his relationship with Ji Xin (季辛) soured, he secretly hired someone to assassinate Yuan Qian (爰骞) – a man whom Ji Xin had previously quarreled with. The ruler of Zhongshan naturally assumed Ji Xin had committed the murder and had him executed. Sima Xi used a pre-existing grudge as the “evidence” to frame his rival.
Zheng Xiu and the Nose-Cutting Conspiracy:
Zheng Xiu (郑袖) was a favored concubine of the King of Chu. When the king acquired a new beauty, Zheng Xiu’s jealousy set in motion one of the most elaborate manipulation schemes in Chinese political history. She first told the new beauty: “The king loves it when women cover their mouths.” The beauty, eager to please, began covering her mouth whenever she approached the king. Zheng Xiu then told the king: “She said she finds your smell repulsive.” When the beauty continued the habit, the king flew into a rage and ordered her nose cut off. Zheng Xiu had pre-arranged with the guards to execute any royal command immediately, ensuring the punishment was carried out before anyone could intervene.
Fei Wuji and the Trap for Xi Wan:
Fei Wuji (费无忌) was a courtier close to the Chief Minister (令尹) of Chu. When Xi Wan (郄宛), a rising official, gained the minister’s favor, Fei Wuji became jealous. He told the minister: “You like Xi Wan – why not visit his home for a drink?” He then went to Xi Wan and advised him: “The minister is proud and loves weapons. Display your arms in the courtyard to impress him.” Xi Wan complied. When the minister arrived and saw weapons arrayed throughout the house, he was terrified. Fei Wuji said: “You are in danger – leave immediately!” The minister, enraged, sent troops and had Xi Wan killed.
Other than that, Fei Wuji sowed discord between King Ping of Chu and the crown prince, framed loyal general Wu She, and triggered Wu Zixu’s flight to Wu. His vicious intrigues brought great turmoil to Chu and eventually led to his own death.
Chen Xu and the Assassination of Zhang Shou:
Chen Xu (陈需) had recently arrived in Wei and was on bad terms with Xishou (犀首, also known as Gongsun Yan, a prominent statesman). Xishou had a pre-existing feud with Zhang Shou (张寿). Chen Xu secretly had Zhang Shou assassinated. The king of Wei assumed Xishou had done it and moved to punish him. Xishou was forced to flee.
The Burning of the Fodder Store:
In the state of Zhongshan, a low-ranking prince had thin horses and a shabby carriage. A courtier who disliked him told the king: “The prince is very poor – why not increase his horse feed?” The king refused. The courtier then secretly had someone set fire to the fodder store at night. The king assumed the impoverished prince had done it out of desperation and had him punished.
The Killing of the Old Confucian:
An old Confucian scholar in Wei was on bad terms with Lord Jiyang (济阳君). A retainer of Lord Jiyang who had a personal grudge against the scholar took the opportunity to kill him, then presented the murder to Lord Jiyang as a favor: “He was hostile to you, so I killed him for your sake.” Lord Jiyang, without investigating, rewarded the killer.
False Resemblance / Deception Through Similarity:
Fabricated evidence that mimics genuine evidence. In Legalist political theory, this is one of the most dangerous threats to sovereign authority because it corrupts the ruler’s judgment at the level of perception itself. The ruler believes he is seeing reality, but is actually viewing a staged scene.
Misapplied Punishment:
Refers to the ruler punishing the wrong person – a catastrophic failure of judicial authority. Han Fei argues that this is not merely an administrative error but a structural vulnerability: whenever the ruler’s access to information is mediated by ministers, false evidence can be planted with devastating effect.
Nose Amputation:
One of the Five Punishments in ancient Chinese law. Cutting off the nose was both a physical mutilation and a permanent social stigma. In the Zheng Xiu story, the punishment is particularly cruel because it was inflicted on an innocent woman based entirely on fabricated evidence.
经三似类
似类之事，人主之所以失诛，而大臣之所以成私也。是以门人捐水而夷射诛，济阳自矫而二人罪，司马喜杀爰骞而季辛诛，郑袖言恶臭而新人劓，费无忌教郄宛而令尹诛，陈需杀张寿而犀首走。故烧刍廥郄而中山罪，杀老儒而济阳赏也。
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