In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong invented many plot points, such as the noble sacrifice of Lady Mi, the killing of Liu Cong mentioned earlier, and Cai Mao, the protagonist of today’s article, who was also killed by Cao Cao, among others. There are quite a few similar examples.
The fictional Cai Mao
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Cai Mao is cast as a literary villain – jealous, treacherous, and self-serving. Serving under Liu Biao in Jing Province, he conspires with Kuai Yue and others to sideline the elder son Liu Qi and install the younger Liu Cong as heir, paving the way for surrender to Cao Cao.
When Cao Cao invades Jing Province in 208 CE, Cai Mao urges immediate capitulation. Later, during preparations for the campaign against Sun Quan, Cai Mao – now appointed commander of Cao Cao’s navy – is portrayed as a formidable expert in naval warfare.
Fearing his competence, Zhou Yu devises a cunning ruse during the “The Heroes’ Feast”. He tricks Jiang Gan into stealing a forged letter that implicates Cai Mao and his nephew Zhang Yun in collusion with the enemy.
Cao Cao, enraged and suspicious, executes both men without trial. Their deaths – swift and unjust – are framed as tragic consequences of Zhou Yu’s brilliance and Cao Cao’s impulsiveness. In this narrative, Cai Mao meets a fitting end: the traitor betrayed by the very warlord he sought to serve.
The historical Cai Mao
In stark contrast, historical records paint a far different picture. According to Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) and Pei Songzhi’s annotations, Cai Mao was not only spared but honored after Jing Province’s surrender.
Born into the powerful Cai clan of Xiangyang, Cai Mao came from a web of elite connections:
- His aunt married Grand Commandant Zhang Wen.
- His elder sister wed Huang Chengyan, father of Lady Huang – the wife of Zhuge Liang.
- His other sister became Liu Biao’s second wife, known as Lady Cai.
From youth, Cai Mao and Cao Cao were close friends. When Liu Biao was appointed Governor of Jing Province in 190 CE, it was with Cai Mao’s military support that he pacified the region. Cai Mao served as Administrator of Jiangxia, Nanjun, and Zhangling, and acted as Liu Biao’s chief strategist.
He did indeed favor Liu Cong – partly because Liu Cong had married a Cai daughter – and worked with Lady Cai and nephew Zhang Yun to undermine Liu Qi. He even attempted to assassinate Liu Bei during a banquet; Liu Bei famously escaped by leaping across the Tan Stream on his horse.
Yet when Cao Cao arrived in 208 CE, Cai Mao did not fall. Instead, Cao Cao welcomed him as an old friend. Historical accounts note that Cao Cao personally visited Cai Mao’s home, greeted his wife, and reminisced about their shared youth. Cai Mao was swiftly promoted to Changshui Colonel (Commander of the Changshui cavalry), granted the title of Marquis of Hanyang Pavilion, and entrusted with high office.
There is no record of his execution – only silence, suggesting a quiet, prosperous retirement. Far from being a victim of Zhou Yu’s scheme, Cai Mao never commanded Cao Cao’s navy, nor did he participate in the Battle of Red Cliffs.
Literary Justice vs. Historical Pragmatism
Luo Guanzhong’s fictional execution of Cai Mao serves three key purposes:
Moral Reckoning:
Historically, Cai Mao escaped punishment despite betraying Liu Biao – a ruler who trusted him deeply. By having him killed through Zhou Yu’s stratagem, the novel delivers poetic justice.
As the Song dynasty scholar Zeng Gong later wrote:
“He sowed discord between Liu Qi and Liu Cong… his guilt ran deep.”
The fabricated death satisfies the reader’s desire for karmic retribution.
Elevating Zhou Yu’s Genius
The “Jiang Gan Steals the Letter” episode showcases Zhou Yu’s psychological mastery. Eliminating Cai Mao and Zhang Yun removes Cao Cao’s only competent naval commanders, making the Red Cliffs victory more plausible – and more glorious.
Reinforcing Loyalty as Virtue
In the novel’s moral universe, betrayal is unforgivable. Cai Mao’s literary fate warns that those who “sell their lord for personal gain” will meet ruin – even if history lets them prosper.
Even Cao Pi, Cao Cao’s own son, later condemned Cai Mao and Zhang Yun for blinding Liu Biao to danger, calling them architects of his downfall.
Two Legacies, One Man
The real Cai Mao was a pragmatic aristocrat who navigated dynastic collapse with skill and survived unscathed. The fictional Cai Mao is a cautionary symbol of treachery, sacrificed on the altar of narrative justice.
This duality reflects a broader pattern in Romance of the Three Kingdoms: history provides facts, but literature provides meaning. While Cai Mao lived comfortably under Cao Wei, Luo Guanzhong ensured that in the realm of myth and memory, he would forever be remembered – not as a survivor, but as a traitor rightly destroyed.
Leave a Reply