Chapter 45 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms – titled “Zhou Yu Schemes to Eliminate Cai Mao and Zhang Yun; Jiang Gan Falls for the Bait at the Heroes’ Feast” – unfolds as a masterclass in psychological warfare and strategic deception on the eve of the epochal Battle of Red Cliffs.
With the Sun-Liu alliance now formalized, Zhou Yu moves swiftly to neutralize Cao Cao’s only advantage in naval warfare: his newly appointed southern admirals, Cai Mao and Zhang Yun. Through an elaborate ruse centered on the boastful but naive Jiang Gan, Zhou Yu manipulates Cao Cao into executing his own best water commanders – turning internal betrayal into a weapon without drawing a single sword.
While Luo Guanzhong dramatizes this episode with theatrical flair, historical sources like Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) confirm Cai Mao’s defection and death, though not the “Heroes’ Feast” trap. Nevertheless, the chapter captures a profound truth: in total war, the sharpest blade is often the mind.
The weakness of northern sailors
Following his appointment as Grand Commander, Zhou Yu leads the Wu fleet to Sanjiangkou (Three Rivers Mouth), where they engage Cao Cao’s vanguard in their first naval skirmish.
Unaccustomed to river combat, Cao’s northern troops falter. In contrast, Wu generals Gan Ning and Han Dang exploit their superior maneuverability, launching coordinated assaults that throw the Cao army into disarray. The battle ends in a decisive Wu victory, exposing Cao Cao’s critical vulnerability: his army cannot fight on water.
Recognizing this, Cao Cao places full trust in Cai Mao and Zhang Yun – former Jing Province officers who surrendered with Liu Cong – and orders them to train his troops in naval tactics. Their expertise becomes Cao’s last hope for parity on the Yangtze River.
Historically, the Sanguozhi notes that Cai Mao did defect to Cao Cao and was involved in naval preparations – but his execution is ambiguously recorded. Luo Guanzhong seizes this gap to craft one of the novel’s most iconic stratagems.
The Heroes’ Feast: A trap wrapped in wine and friendship
Seeing Cai Mao and Zhang Yun as existential threats, Zhou Yu devises a plan to eliminate them from within. His opportunity arrives when Jiang Gan, a scholar-official in Cao Cao’s camp and an old acquaintance of Zhou Yu, volunteers to “persuade Zhou Yu to defect.”
Zhou Yu immediately sees through the ploy. Rather than reject Jiang Gan, he welcomes him with open arms, hosting the legendary “Heroes’ Feast” – a banquet filled with music, wine, and displays of unity between Zhou Yu and his officers.
Midway through, Zhou Yu pretends to be drunk, insisting Jiang Gan sleep in his tent. In the dead of night, Jiang Gan sneaks a look at Zhou Yu’s desk and discovers a forged letter, seemingly from Cai Mao and Zhang Yun, pledging to assassinate Cao Cao and hand over the navy to Wu.
Convinced he has uncovered a treasonous plot, Jiang Gan steals the letter and flees back to Cao Cao’s camp before dawn.
The execution of his own admirals
Blinded by fury and suspicion, Cao Cao reads the letter and immediately orders the execution of Cai Mao and Zhang Yun – without interrogation or corroboration.
Only after their heads fall does he realize the truth:
“I’ve been tricked! These two were essential to my fleet!”
But it is too late. With his only experienced naval commanders gone, Cao’s water forces descend into chaos, their training halted and morale shattered. The path to Red Cliffs is now tilted heavily in Wu’s favor.
Historically, Cai Mao did die around this time, but likely not by Cao Cao’s order – some accounts suggest he survived the Red Cliffs campaign. Zhang Yun’s existence is even more dubious; he may be a fictional composite created by Luo Guanzhong to heighten dramatic tension. Yet the strategic consequence is real: Cao Cao’s navy remained poorly integrated and vulnerable – a key factor in his eventual defeat.
Jiang Gan: The unwitting pawn of history
Jiang Gan, proud of his “intelligence coup,” becomes the eternal symbol of self-deceived mediocrity. His name enters Chinese idiom as shorthand for bungling diplomacy (“Jiang Gan stealing the letter”).
Ironically, his attempt to serve Cao Cao accelerates his master’s downfall. Zhou Yu, meanwhile, achieves his goal with elegance and minimal risk – proving that in the art of war, deception is mightier than force.
The tide turns
With Cai Mao and Zhang Yun gone, Zhou Yu gains precious time to refine his fire-attack strategy. Meanwhile, Zhuge Liang – watching from the sidelines – prepares his own contributions, including the famed “borrowing of arrows” and later, the invocation of eastern winds.
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