Introduction: This article covers the civilian Righteous Armies that resisted the Jin invaders after the Jingkang Humiliation. Led by Wang Yan, Yue Fei and others, they waged guerrilla warfare to defend northern territories. Despite their bravery, the Southern Song court’s appeasement policy left them without support, yet their spirit of resistance endured.
The Birth of the Southern Song and the Flight South
When the Jin Dynasty declared the end of the Northern Song in 1127, Zhao Gou, the Prince of Kang, was stationed in Jizhou. As the Jin forces withdrew after sacking Kaifeng, the loyal general Zong Ze attempted to intercept them and rescue the captured Emperors Huizong and Qinzong, but failed. Recognizing the vacuum of power, Zong Ze and the puppet ruler Zhang Bangchang (of the short-lived “Chu” state) urged Zhao Gou to ascend the throne. In the summer of 1127, Zhao Gou proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtian Prefecture (renamed Nanjing), adopting the era name Jianyan. He became known as Emperor Gaozong, marking the beginning of the Southern Song Dynasty.
Gaozong initially appointed the staunch anti-Jin strategist Li Gang as Chancellor. Li Gang immediately began reorganizing the military with the goal of retaking lost territories and returning the capital to Kaifeng. However, this conflicted with Gaozong’s desire for safety. Influenced by close advisors Wang Boyan and Huang Qianshan, who suggested moving the capital further south to escape the Jin threat, Gaozong dismissed Li Gang after only seventy-seven days in office. Determined to flee, Gaozong moved his court to Yangzhou, leaving Zong Ze to defend Kaifeng and manage affairs north of the Yellow River, while the Jin occupied most of the north.
The Uprising of the Righteous Militias
While the imperial court fled and emperors were captured, the people of northern China did not surrender. From Hebei and Hedong to Shaanxi, civilians organized themselves into “Righteous Armies” (Yimin) to defend their homes.
- The Wuma Mountain Army: Led by Ma Kuo, son of the former envoy Ma Zheng, this group operated in Hebei. Ma Kuo, once captured and offered high rank by the Jin commander Wanyan Zongwang, refused to defect. Escaping captivity, he joined the rebels at Wuma Mountain, eventually commanding over 100,000 men in guerrilla warfare against the Jin.
- The Liangshan Water Force: In the marshes of Liangshan Po (Shandong), where the legendary Song Jiang had once rebelled, fishermen led by Zhang Rong formed a formidable navy. With thousands of warships, they intercepted Jin supply lines and troops on the waterways.
- The Eight-Character Army: The most powerful force emerged in the Taihang Mountains, led by Wang Yan. A former Song officer with experience against the Western Xia, Wang Yan returned to service under Zhang Suo, a general appointed by Li Gang and Zong Ze to recruit heroes in the north.
The Rise of Yue Fei and the Oath of Loyalty
Among the officers under Wang Yan was a young man named Yue Fei. Born in Tangyin to a humble family, Yue Fei was inspired by his father’s tales of loyalty and trained in archery by Zhou Tong and spear fighting by other masters. Married young with a son, Yue Yun, he left his family to join the army as the north fell. Recognized for his bravery and strategic mind, he rose quickly through the ranks.
When Zhang Suo asked Yue Fei how many enemies he could fight, Yue Fei replied, “Bravery alone is insufficient; strategy is paramount.” He argued that recovering Hebei was essential to protecting the capital, warning that fleeing south would not stop the Jin pursuit. Impressed, Zhang Suo promoted him and assigned him to Wang Yan’s expedition across the Yellow River.
During the battle for Xinxiang, Yue Fei charged ahead, seized the enemy’s great banner, and waved it triumphantly, inspiring his comrades to capture the Jin commander and take the city. However, when a massive Jin counterattack forced a retreat, Yue Fei’s aggressive strategy clashed with Wang Yan’s caution. Yue Fei departed with his own unit to continue fighting north, while Wang Yan retreated into the Taihang Mountains with 700 loyal soldiers.
To solidify their resolve against Jin bounties and infiltration, Wang Yan and his men tattooed eight characters on their faces: “Red Heart to Serve the Country, Vow to Kill the Jin Traitors” (赤心报国, 誓杀金贼). Thus, the Eight-Character Army was born. Their reputation grew rapidly, attracting tens of thousands of volunteers and establishing a network of camps stretching hundreds of miles. They became the primary obstacle to Jin expansion in Hebei and Hedong, using ambushes and hit-and-run tactics that terrified Jin generals, who feared attacking their fortified mountain positions directly.
Zong Ze’s Desperate Plea and Final Days
As the Eight-Character Army thrived, Wang Yan planned to strike west toward Taiyuan and Datong. He sought coordination with Zong Ze in Kaifeng. Zong Ze, wary of isolated deep strikes, invited Wang Yan to the capital to strategize. When Wang Yan arrived, Jin forces shadowed him but dared not attack. Zong Ze, recognizing the momentum, urged Wang Yan to travel to Yangzhou and persuade Emperor Gaozong to launch a full-scale northern expedition.
However, Gaozong, entrenched in his policy of appeasement with the Jin and advised by the peace-favoring Wang Boyan and Huang Qianshan, refused to see Wang Yan. He offered Wang a ceremonial post in the court, which Wang declined, feigning illness before departing to continue his resistance in Shaanxi.
Back in Kaifeng, Zong Ze waited in vain for imperial support. He worked tirelessly to restore order, train troops, and unify the various righteous militias under a coordinated command. The northern peoples rallied to his call, ready to follow his lead. Repeatedly, Zong Ze submitted memorials to Gaozong, begging him to return to Kaifeng and lead the counteroffensive. Each plea was ignored.
Frustrated by the court’s cowardice and the missed opportunities, Zong Ze fell ill with a severe carbuncle on his back. Knowing his end was near, he recited Du Fu‘s lament: “The army marched but victory was not won; the hero died before his task was done, leaving generations to weep.” In the summer of 1128, the 69-year-old general gathered his last strength to shout, “Cross the river! Cross the river! Cross the river!”, and then passed away, leaving the dream of recovery unfulfilled but the spirit of resistance alive in the hearts of the people.
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