Introduction: This article covers the final reform of the Yuan Dynasty. Emperor Toghon Temür and Prime Minister Toghto overthrew tyranny, revived exams, and fixed the Yellow River. But court intrigue and a seduction plot turned the emperor corrupt. Toghto was framed and killed; the army collapsed. The last hope for Yuan was gone.
The Shadow of Bayan
When Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong) ascended the throne at the age of thirteen, he possessed a shrewdness beyond his years. Initially, he showed great deference to Empress Budashiri, inviting her to oversee state affairs, and appointed El Tegüs, the son of the late Emperor Wenzong, as Crown Prince. Although Toghon Temür was aware of the suspicious deaths of his father, Emperor Mingzong (Kusala), and his mother, Babusha, he remained silent to stabilize his precarious position.
Real power, however, lay with the Grand Preceptor Bayan (not to be confused with the earlier general of the same name). A political survivor who had served under nine emperors since the time of Emperor Wuzong, Bayan accumulated over ten high-ranking titles after the death of El Temür. He controlled all appointments, demanding bribes proportional to the office sought, and diverted most provincial tributes to his personal coffers. His processions were so lavish they blocked half the streets of Dadu.
Bayan grew increasingly hostile toward Han officials. He advised the young emperor: “Never let your son study Han books; the Han use their literacy to bully others. Abolish the civil service examinations, which only benefit the Han, and reserve key posts for Mongols and Semu.” Consequently, the exams were suspended, and Han people were forbidden from learning the Mongolian script. Bayan’s extremism peaked when he suggested executing all members of the five major Han surnames (Zhang, Wang, Li, Zhao, Liu) to prevent rebellions. Horrified, Toghon Temür refused, marking the beginning of his distrust. Bayan’s arrogance extended to the Mongol nobility as well; he arbitrarily accused Prince Chichektu of treason and had him executed despite the emperor’s objections, alienating the entire aristocracy.
The Nephew’s Betrayal
Bayan’s nephew, Toghto, raised by Han tutors and influenced by Confucian ideals, realized his uncle’s tyranny would bring ruin upon their family and the state. Consulting his teacher Wu Zhifang, Toghto resolved to act. Wu encouraged him, citing the historical virtue of “destroying kin for the sake of righteousness.” Toghto secretly met with Toghon Temür, arguing for the restoration of Han participation in governance. The emperor, resentful of Bayan’s usurpation of imperial authority, agreed to a coup.
In early 1340, while Bayan took Crown Prince El Tegüs on a hunting expedition, Toghto seized the opportunity. He locked the gates of Dadu, retaining the keys, and convened an emergency council. The emperor issued an edict dismissing Bayan and barring his return. When Bayan’s envoys arrived at the city walls, Toghto declared from the ramparts: “The Emperor has ordered Bayan’s exile. He shall not return; his followers are free to disperse.” Abandoned by his troops, Bayan was forced into exile, first to Henan, then further south to Yangchun in Lingnan. En route, he fell ill and died in a postal station in Jiangxi, broken by betrayal and rage.
The Era of “Genghua” (Reform)
With Bayan gone, Toghon Temür purged the court: he posthumously revealed the truth about his father’s murder, removed Emperor Wenzong’s tablet from the imperial temple, exiled Empress Budashiri (who soon died), and banished El Tegüs to Korea. After his father Maqatarai briefly served as Prime Minister before retiring, Toghto assumed the role. Together, the young emperor and his roughly twenty-six-year-old prime minister launched a reform movement known as “Genghua” (Change and Transformation).
Toghto’s reforms were comprehensive:
- Restoration of Exams: The civil service examinations were reinstated, and enrollment in the Imperial Academy expanded to over 3,000 students of all ethnicities.
- Cultural Revival: The Xuanwen Pavilion was established to teach classics (like the Analects, the Mencius, the Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean etc.), calligraphy, and music to the royal family and nobility.
- Historical Compilation: Toghto supervised the compilation of the official histories of the Song, Liao, and Jin dynasties.
- Rehabilitation: Victims of Bayan’s purges were posthumously honored and restored.
- Administrative Standards: Officials were evaluated on six criteria, including population growth, land reclamation, and crime reduction.
- Economic Relief: Taxes on salt and land rents were reduced, and horse breeding was encouraged.
Inspired by Toghto’s diligence, Toghon Temür transformed his own behavior. He attended court regularly, participated in rituals, studied in the Xuanwen Pavilion, and even practiced farming outside the city to demonstrate humility. He reduced the imperial household’s expenses, cutting daily sheep slaughter from five to one and replacing gold ornaments on his boots with copper. For a brief period, it seemed the Yuan Dynasty might experience a renaissance akin to the reign of Emperor Renzong.
The Yellow River and the Rebellion
However, internal court intrigues soon resurfaced. After a temporary dismissal, Toghto was recalled to power as the empire faced catastrophic challenges. Years of natural disasters and oppressive taxation had fueled widespread unrest. In 1344, the Yellow River burst its banks, flooding vast areas of Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Anhui, and Jiangsu, displacing millions.
Toghto appointed the hydraulic expert Jia Lu to manage the crisis. Jia proposed a massive project to block the northern flow and dredge the southern channel to restore the river’s original course to the sea. Despite opposition from frugal ministers, Toghto authorized the expensive but necessary plan. In 1351, over 100,000 laborers and soldiers worked for months to complete the project, successfully controlling the flood. Yet, the conscription of laborers sparked the Red Turban Rebellion, as desperate peasants rose up against the government.
The Intrigue of Hamma and the Fall of Toghto
As Toghto led imperial forces to suppress the rebellions, achieving victories against leaders like Li Er in Xuzhou, his enemies at court plotted his downfall. Hamma, an official whose mother had been a wet nurse to Emperor Ningzong and who bore a grudge against Toghto for a past demotion, devised a sinister plan. He introduced Tibetan Buddhist monks skilled in Tantric sexual practices to the emperor, claiming they offered longevity and pleasure. Toghon Temür, previously disciplined, quickly became addicted to these “secret teachings,” indulging in orgiastic rituals with Hamma, his brother-in-law Galusha (or Tulu Temür), and others, neglecting state affairs entirely.
Fearing Toghto’s return and retribution, Hamma slandered the prime minister to the emperor: “Toghto has been campaigning for months with no decisive result, wasting vast sums. Moreover, he opposes your choice of Crown Prince. He seeks to become another Bayan!” Paranoia struck Toghon Temür. In 1354, while Toghto was besieging the rebel leader Zhang Shicheng at Gaoyou and victory seemed imminent, an edict arrived stripping him of his command.
The army, demoralized by the sudden removal of their leader, collapsed. Many soldiers defected to the rebels, turning a certain victory into a disastrous defeat. This marked the point of no return for the Yuan Dynasty; the rebellion gained unstoppable momentum. Toghto was exiled to Dali in Yunnan, and his family was scattered to Sichuan and Gansu. Shortly after, Hamma sent poisoned wine under the guise of an imperial order. Toghto drank it and died, removing the last pillar holding up the crumbling empire.
Though Toghon Temür later posthumously rehabilitated Toghto, the dynasty was beyond saving. As contemporaries lamented, “If Toghto had not died, would the world have fallen into such chaos?” Yet, the structural decay of the Yuan was too advanced; even Toghto’s survival might only have delayed, not prevented, the inevitable collapse.
Note
Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong)
Last emperor of the Yuan Dynasty. He once pursued reform but later indulged in pleasure and ruined the state.
Toghto
Wise reformist prime minister. He ended tyranny, restored exams, repaired the Yellow River, and was the last savior of the Yuan.
Bayan
Tyrannical Mongol official who monopolized power, suppressed Han people, and was ousted by his nephew Toghto.
Hamma
Evil official who corrupted the emperor with immoral practices and framed Toghto to death.
Jia Lu
Hydraulic expert who successfully controlled the Yellow River flood.
Genghua Reform
Toghto’s comprehensive reform to save the Yuan: restoring exams, reducing taxes, compiling history, and governing ethically.
Yellow River Flood (1344)
Catastrophic flood that displaced millions and triggered nationwide uprisings.
Red Turban Rebellion
Mass peasant revolt sparked by forced labor for river repair; it doomed the Yuan.
Civil Service Exams (Keju)
Restored by Toghto to let Han scholars serve the government.
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