Brief: This article focuses on Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, leaders of the Tang Dynasty’s Ancient Prose Movement. It covers their literary reform against flowery parallel prose, their close friendship, and their moral integrity. It also tells Han Yu’s bold protest against Buddhism that led to exile, Liu Zongyuan’s achievements in exile, and how their spirit shaped classical Chinese prose.
The Controversy of the Huaixi Stele
Following the successful suppression of the Huaixi rebellion, Emperor Xianzong sought to commemorate the victory with a monumental stele. He commissioned Han Yu, a trusted official and participant in the campaign, to write the inscription. Han Yu, serving under the chief commander Pei Du, naturally emphasized Pei’s strategic leadership while understating the tactical brilliance of General Li Su, who had led the daring snow-night assault on Caizhou. This imbalance sparked outrage among Li Su’s troops, who smashed the stele in protest. Li Su’s wife, a princess’s daughter, appealed directly to the emperor. To quell the discord, Xianzong ordered the scholar Duan Wenchang to rewrite the inscription. The resulting “Duan Stele” balanced the credits between civil and military leaders, restoring harmony but highlighting the political sensitivities surrounding historical record-keeping.
Han Yu: The Unyielding Confucian
Han Yu, a native of Heyang, was renowned not only for his literary genius but also for his blunt integrity. During Emperor Dezong’s reign, as a Censor, he had witnessed a devastating famine that corrupt officials like Li Shi concealed from the throne. Han Yu’s honest memorial reporting the suffering led to his exile to Yangshan. Under Xianzong, though recalled, his fiery temperament soon landed him in lower posts, eventually finding solace as a teacher at the Imperial Academy.
Han Yu became the standard-bearer for the revival of Confucianism, which had been overshadowed by Buddhism and Daoism since the Six Dynasties period. He argued that governance should follow the Way of Confucius and Mencius, vehemently criticizing the superstitions of foreign religions. His lectures and writings made him a feared figure among religious devotees in the capital.
The Call for Ancient Prose
Beyond ideology, Han Yu spearheaded a literary revolution. He rejected the ornate, parallel-prose style (pianwen) dominant since the Six Dynasties, which prioritized rhyme and symmetry over substance. Advocating a return to the free, direct style of the Pre-Qin and Han dynasties, he launched the “Ancient Prose Movement”. He urged writers to prioritize truth and moral principle over empty rhetoric. His own essays, such as On Teachers, articulated profound educational philosophies: “A teacher is one who transmits the Way, imparts knowledge, and resolves doubts.” In An Explanation of the Advancement of Learning, he used satire to discuss the virtues of diligence while subtly lamenting his own underappreciated talents. His versatile corpus included essays, biographies, prefaces, and letters, all characterized by sincerity and vigor.
The Friendship of Han and Liu
Han Yu found a kindred spirit in Liu Zongyuan, a talented writer five years his junior. Liu, a victim of the failed Yongzhen Reform, spent over a decade in exile in Yongzhou and later as prefect in Liuzhou. Despite his hardships, Liu governed effectively and produced exquisite landscape essays, such as those in Eight Records of Yongzhou, and sharp fables, such as The Tale of the Snake Catcher, The Donkey of Guizhou, etc. Together, they were known as “Han-Liu,” the twin pillars of the literary renaissance.
Their friendship was marked by mutual admiration and rigorous honesty. Han Yu publicly praised Liu as the finest writer of their age, comparing him to Sima Qian. In return, Liu treated Han’s new works with ritualistic reverence. However, when Han Yu expressed fear about the dangers of being an imperial historian in a letter, Liu sharply rebuked him, urging him to write with integrity regardless of personal risk. Han Yu, though sweating at the criticism, cherished such frank counsel.
The Bone of the Buddha and Exile to Chaozhou
Han Yu’s unwavering principles led to his most famous confrontation. When Emperor Xianzong planned to welcome a relic of the Buddha (a finger bone) into the palace with great pomp, Han Yu submitted a scathing memorial, On the Bone of the Buddha. He argued that Buddhism had shortened the lives of emperors and suggested the relic be destroyed. Enraged by the implication that he would die young, Xianzong initially ordered Han’s execution. Only the intercession of Pei Du saved him, resulting in exile to the remote prefecture of Chaozhou.
The Death of a Friend and an Emperor
While Han Yu traveled south, news arrived that Liu Zongyuan had died in Liuzhou, never having returned to the capital. Grief-stricken, Han Yu arranged for his friend’s remains and wrote his epitaph. Han Yu himself continued to serve benevolently in Chaozhou and later Yuanzhou, earning the love of the local people.
Meanwhile, Emperor Xianzong’s quest for immortality through alchemical elixirs proved fatal. The toxins altered his temperament, leading to violent outbursts. A power struggle erupted between eunuch factions supporting different successors. On the eve of the New Year, the eunuch Wang Shoucheng, fearing rival Chen Hongzhi and Tuwu Chengcui would install a different prince, poisoned the ailing emperor. Xianzong died at the young age of 42. Wang Shoucheng swiftly installed Prince Li Heng as Emperor Muzong, eliminating his rivals, and thus ended the era of the “Yuanhe Restoration,” leaving Han Yu and the empire to face an uncertain future.
Note
Han Yu
Leader of the Ancient Prose Movement, a bold Confucian scholar who opposed excessive Buddhism. He was honest, unyielding, and exiled for criticizing the emperor’s worship of Buddhist relics.
Liu Zongyuan
Great writer, reformer, and close friend of Han Yu. Exiled for years, he wrote classic landscape essays and fables. Together they were called “Han–Liu”.
Emperor Xianzong
Tang emperor who achieved the Yuanhe Restoration but later believed in alchemy and Buddhism; he exiled Han Yu and died young from toxic elixirs.
Pei Du
Wise chancellor who saved Han Yu from death and supported the Huaixi campaign.
Li Su
Hero general of the Snowy Night Assault on Caizhou; offended by Han Yu’s stele text.
Wang Shoucheng
Eunuch who assassinated Emperor Xianzong and seized power.
Ancient Prose Movement
A literary revolution against overly flowery, rigid writing. It promoted clear, sincere, logical prose modeled on ancient classics.
Parallel Prose (Pianwen)
Ornate, rhythm‑fixed writing popular before the Tang; focused on beauty over meaning.
Confucianism revival
Han Yu’s effort to restore Confucian values as the core of governance and education.
Buddhist relic (Buddha’s finger bone)
A sacred religious object that triggered Han Yu’s famous protest.
Yuanhe Restoration
The short‑lived Tang revival under Emperor Xianzong, ended by his death.
Teacher transmits the Way
Han Yu’s famous definition of a teacher’s duty.
Donkey of Guizhou
Liu Zongyuan’s fable about useless bravado.
The Snake Catcher
Liu’s essay exposing heavy taxes and people’s suffering.
Pen as powerful as a sword
Describes Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan using writing to uphold justice.
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