Duke Ai asked about governance.
The Master said:
“The policies of Kings Wen and Wu are recorded in books and documents.
Yet, when the right people are present, their policies flourish;
when those people are gone, their policies cease.”
“The human way excels in governance, just as the earth excels in growing plants.
Indeed, governance is like the reed – it grows swiftly when conditions are right.
Thus, governance depends on people.
To select people, look first to their character;
to cultivate character, follow the Way (Dao);
to cultivate the Way, begin with benevolence.
Benevolence is what makes us human – the greatest expression of ren is loving one’s kin.
Righteousness means acting appropriately – the highest form of righteousness is honoring the worthy.
The gradations in loving kin and the ranks in honoring the worthy – these give rise to ritual.
If one in a lower position lacks the trust of superiors, the people cannot be governed!
Therefore, the gentleman must cultivate himself;
if he wishes to cultivate himself, he must serve his parents;
if he wishes to serve his parents, he must understand human nature;
if he wishes to understand human nature, he must comprehend Heaven.
There are five universal human relationships:
ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers, and friendships –
these are the Five Constant Relationships of the world.
There are three universal virtues: wisdom, benevolence, and courage –
these are the Three Universal Virtues of the world.
And the means to practice them all is one.
Some understand by birth, some through study, some through hardship – yet once they understand, it is the same.
Some act from inner peace, some for benefit, some through effort – yet once they succeed, it is the same.”
哀公問政。子曰：「文、武之政，布在方策，其人存，則其政舉；其人亡，則其政息。
人道敏政，地道敏樹。夫政也者，蒲盧也。
故為政在人，取人以身，修身以道，修道以仁。
仁者人也，親親為大；義者宜也，尊賢為大。
親親之殺，尊賢之等，禮所生也。
在下位不獲乎上，民不可得而治矣！
故君子不可以不修身；思修身，不可以不事親；思事親，不可以不知人；思知人，不可以不知天。
天下之達道五，所以行之者三，曰：君臣也，父子也，夫婦也，昆弟也，朋友之交也，五者天下之達道也。
知、仁、勇三者，天下之達德也，所以行之者一也。
或生而知之，或學而知之，或困而知之，及其知之，一也；
或安而行之，或利而行之，或勉強而行之，及其成功，一也。」
Note
This chapter is a pivotal section of the Doctrine of the Mean, systematically constructing the Confucian political philosophy that “governance depends on people” and “self-cultivation is the root,” while integrating personal ethics, familial duty, social order, and cosmic principle into a unified whole.
First, “When the right people are present, policies flourish” underscores Confucianism’s rejection of institutional determinism: the core of politics lies in moral character. Even the most perfect system becomes empty words without virtuous individuals to enact it – echoing the Analects: “It is persons who extend the Way, not the Way that extends persons.”
Second, the logical chain – “governance depends on people > select by character > cultivate character through the Way > cultivate the Way through benevolence” – turns inward step by step, culminating in benevolence. Since “loving kin is paramount” in benevolence, Confucian ethics begins with familial affection but does not end there. Through righteousness – “honoring the worthy” – and ritual, which rationally modulates degrees of kinship and hierarchy, a coherent ethical order emerges, blending emotion and reason from within outward.
The statement “If one in a lower position lacks the trust of superiors, the people cannot be governed” reveals a pragmatic understanding of political reality: even with virtue, without institutional trust and upward recognition, governance is impossible. This is not flattery but an acknowledgment of the necessity of vertical communication and relational legitimacy, complementing earlier ideals like “rectify oneself without demanding from others” (Ch. 14).
Most philosophically profound is the articulation of the “Five Constant Relationships” and “Three Universal Virtues.” The Five – ruler-minister, father-son, etc. – form society’s structural framework; the Three – wisdom, benevolence, courage – are the inner capacities to fulfill them. The phrase “the means to practice them all is one” has been interpreted by commentators like Zheng Xuan and Zhu Xi as referring to sincerity – a single thread of authenticity running through all moral action. Regardless of origin (innate knowledge, learning, or hardship) or motivation (inner peace, benefit, or effort), all paths converge in moral achievement – demonstrating Confucianism’s inclusivity toward diverse paths of self-cultivation and its unwavering commitment to the ultimate goal.
Finally, the progression “to cultivate oneself… one must comprehend Heaven” elevates self-cultivation to a cosmological plane: true understanding of humanity requires grasping one’s place within Heaven and Earth – i.e., recognizing the ontological basis of “what Heaven ordains is called nature” (Ch. 1). Thus, personal cultivation is not mere private virtue but a sacred mission to participate in and assist the transformative creativity of Heaven and Earth.
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