Traditional Chinese culture has upheld an unchanging moral principle through the ages: a loyal minister serves no two lords; a virtuous woman marries no two husbands. Those who remain faithful and uphold integrity in adversity are honored by posterity, while those who surrender out of fear and betray their masters are forever condemned and despised. In all dynasties, turncoat officials were looked down upon. Compiled by imperial order during the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty, The Biographies of Turncoat Officials stands as the official and definitive historical judgment on disloyal ministers.
What is the Biographies of Turncoat Officials?
Officially titled Imperially Sanctioned Biographies of Turncoat Officials in National History, the book was commissioned by Emperor Qianlong in the 41st year of his reign (1776). Compiled by the Imperial Historiography Bureau, it is included in Volumes 78 and 79 of Biographies of Qing Dynasty Figures, divided into two sections: Section A and Section B. It records the lives of more than 120 officials who served the Ming Dynasty first and then surrendered to and served the Qing Dynasty after the Manchu conquest.
The classification follows a pragmatic moral standard:
- Section A: Officials who rendered outstanding meritorious service to the Qing regime after their surrender, dedicating themselves to consolidating the new dynasty’s rule. Hong Chengchou, a pivotal founding official of the Qing Dynasty, is a typical representative. Despite his remarkable achievements, he was still defined as a disloyal turncoat.
- Section B: Officials who accomplished nothing and behaved improperly after surrendering, holding official positions without making any contributions. The renowned late Ming scholar Qian Qianyi is listed in this section.
- Notably, rebels like Wu Sangui, who launched armed rebellions against the Qing, were excluded from this book and recorded separately in The Biographies of Rebel Officials, facing harsher condemnation as traitors to the state.
The Core Purpose of Compilation: Establishing Eternal Moral Norms for Officials
Emperor Qianlong clarified the book’s guiding principle:to establish eternal ethical norms for all ministers through generations. In his view, officials who failed to die for their sovereign in times of national crisis, choosing instead to surrender out of cowardice, could never be excused for their disloyalty – no matter their subsequent achievements or the reputation of their descendants. The imperial court insisted on recording historical facts truthfully, nailing these disloyal figures to the pillar of historical shame, and distinguishing loyalty from treachery for future generations.
This judgment stems from the core Confucian ethics of the three cardinal guides and five constant virtues. Traditional culture utterly despises fickle betrayal and wholeheartedly praises unwavering loyalty.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu, who repeatedly swore allegiance to new patrons and killed his adoptive fathers, was insulted as the “slave of three masters” and became a timeless laughingstock. In contrast, Guan Yu rejected Cao Cao’s offer and endured countless hardships to travel thousands of miles and return to his original lord Liu Bei, embodying the highest spirit of loyalty and becoming a model of integrity for millennia.
Yu Jin, a long-serving general under Cao Cao, offers a profound lesson. Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu in a critical battle while his subordinate Pang De died for loyalty, Yu Jin incurred Cao Cao’s deep disappointment. Later, Emperor Cao Pi ordered a painting mocking his humiliating surrender, driving Yu Jin to die of shame – a classic case of how a single moral failure brings eternal regret.
Throughout history, loyal figures who sacrificed for integrity, such as Su Wu who herded sheep in exile to uphold his faith and the eight female martyrs who died for their country, have been revered by posterity. In contrast, all who surrendered and betrayed their masters have faced endless criticism and disdain. Even Du Yuesheng, the influential Shanghai tycoon of modern times, earned public respect precisely for adhering to his principles and refusing to compromise his stance.
A Threefold Imperial Strategy: Qianlong’s Hidden Political Calculation
From the Qing’s entry into the Central Plains in 1644 to 1776, the dynasty had ruled for 132 years. After generations of governance by Nurhaci, Huang Taiji, the Shunzhi, Kangxi, and Yongzheng emperors, the Qianlong era witnessed national stability, ethnic integration, and consolidated imperial power. The compilation of The Biographies of Turncoat Officials was far more than a historical review – it was a sophisticated political maneuver with three major intentions.
- First, to standardize ethical norms and educate the public. The book clearly defined loyalty and betrayal, teaching all subjects to uphold allegiance to their sovereign and never abandon their integrity in peril, setting eternal moral standards for officials.
- Second, to deter and balance court forces. Many serving officials in the Qianlong court were descendants of Ming turncoats, with powerful and entrenched clan influences. Branding their ancestors as disloyal in official history served as a deliberate warning, constraining these aristocratic families and strengthening imperial control.
- Third, to embody the ultimate pragmatism of imperial power. The early Qing court relied heavily on surrendered Ming officials to seize and stabilize the country, treating them as indispensable tools in times of crisis. Once the regime was firmly established, these useful but morally flawed ministers were discarded and stigmatized. From another perspective, this can also be viewed as “putting away the bow once the birds are gone; cooking the hares once the game is dead“. As the imperial maxim goes, “All blessings and misfortunes come from the emperor” – monarchs hold absolute power over the honor and disgrace of their subjects.
Historical Irony: Qianlong’s Double Standard
Nevertheless, this grand moral judgment contains an undeniable historical paradox. While Qianlong harshly condemned former officials for serving two dynasties, his own ancestors were loyal servants of the Ming Dynasty for generations, receiving official salaries and titles from the Ming court.
Nurhaci, the founding father of the Qing, once served as the commander of Jianzhou Left Guard and was awarded the title of Dragon Tiger General by the Ming Dynasty, formally submitting to Ming rule. By Qianlong’s own standard of “turncoat official”, his ancestors were also disloyal to their former sovereign. This blatant double standard renders the Qing’s official moral judgment somewhat absurd and self-contradictory.
Eternal Verdict: History Never Forgives Moral Cowardice
Many regard this imperial practice as “discarding loyal servants once the crisis ends”, yet such is the unspoken rule of feudal imperial power. As early as the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang strictly condemned official disloyalty. Wei Su, a preeminent scholar who compiled the History of the Song Dynasty, History of the Jin Dynasty, and History of the Liao Dynasty, was never fully trusted by Zhu Yuanzhang after surrendering to the Ming.
Once Wei Su announced himself outside the door with the words “Your old subject Wei Su”, Zhu Yuanzhang retorted coldly: “I thought it was Wen Tianxiang!” The remark spoke volumes of his contempt – posterity honors Wen Tianxiang for sacrificing his life for righteousness and despises those who surrender for survival, drawing a clear line between integrity and cowardice.
Time judges all merits and faults. For hundreds of years, The Biographies of Turncoat Officials has conveyed an eternal truth: Talent earns temporary recognition, but integrity secures eternal standing. Every opportunistic betrayal leaves an indelible stain that history will never erase.
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