Influenced by the famous novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, many people believe that it was Cao Cao who facilitated the military alliance against Dong Zhuo. According to the novel, Cao Cao forged an imperial edict, falsely conveyed the emperor’s order to summon heroes from across the realm to campaign against Dong Zhuo, and restore the authority of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Upon receiving the edict, Yuan Shao was the first to form an alliance with Cao Cao; later, Cao Cao issued a call-to-arms against Dong Zhuo to the entire country, eventually leading to the formation of the 18-way military alliance against Dong Zhuo.
However, Romance of the Three Kingdoms is roughly based on historical facts and artistic invention, so it cannot be fully taken as truth. Let us therefore examine historical records to find out who actually facilitated the military alliance against Dong Zhuo.
Dong Zhuo’s failed conciliation strategy
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the depiction of the eighteen warlords coalition against Dong Zhuo differs from other historical records.
Former He Jin’s advisers like Zhou Bi and Wu Qiong persuaded Dong Zhuo to win over the scholar-official class. Dong Zhuo recognized that he needs the officials to govern the country and can’t create too many enemies, so he agreed. He not only rehabilitated Chen Fan and Dou Wu but also appointed their descendants as officials. Furthermore, he assigned a large number of officials from the scholar-official class to various regions, such as Han Fu as Governor of Ji Province and Liu Dai as Inspector of Yan Province. Even Yuan Shao, who had opposed Dong Zhuo, was appointed as Administrator of Bohai, while Yuan Shu was made General of the Rear.
Dong Zhuo’s intention was simple: to signal that everyone should cease conflict, as peaceful coexistence benefited all.
Dong Zhuo’s plan was to elevate Yuan Shu as the next core figure of the Yuan family, thereby suppressing the official class, while relegating the opposing Yuan Shao to a regional post to let him fend for himself. However, both Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu were highly ambitious, ultimately thwarting Dong Zhuo’s schemes.
The coalition’s formation and hidden agendas
Dong Zhuo sent these individuals to become local “overlords” intending to reconcile with them. However, regional leaders held highly concentrated power and, upon gaining control, had no desire for reconciliation. Instead, they raised the banner against Dong Zhuo. Thus, this misstep by Dong Zhuo not only cost him his life but also directly led to the warlords turning against each other in the future.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms describes eighteen warlords jointly opposing Dong Zhuo, but historical records indicate only thirteen.
With Dong Zhuo controlling the court, how did this military alliance form? Zang Hong, a subordinate of Zhang Chao (younger brother of Zhang Miao), persuaded Zhang Chao that given their vast territories and resources, they should contribute to the court by eliminating the traitor Dong Zhuo. Zhang Chao agreed, consulted his brother Zhang Miao, and deemed it feasible. They then brought together Liu Dai (Inspector of Yan Province), Kong Zhou (Inspector of Yu Province), Qiao Mao (Administrator of Dong Commandery), and others, all of whom saw potential in the endeavor. Since they were uniting against Dong Zhuo, a leader was necessary.
As a result, Zang Hong—a minor official under Administrator Zhang Chao—was elected as the leader, among the numerous warlords. This reveals that these warlords had their own ulterior motives, unwilling to be the primary target of Dong Zhuo’s retaliation.
Under Zang Hong’s leadership, they swore a solemn oath to eliminate Dong Zhuo. Once Zang Hong stepped forward as the vanguard, other warlords, seeing potential benefits, joined one after another, ultimately forming a coalition of twelve warlords against Dong Zhuo. Including Cao Cao, this number reached thirteen.
Given the coalition’s scale, Zang Hong’s qualifications were deemed insufficient for leadership, and Yuan Shao was promoted as alliance chief. Yuan Shao’s appointment wasn’t due to universal respect or willingness to follow him, but rather because he had previously dared to confront Dong Zhuo, coupled with the Yuan family’s prestige. As the Yuan family stood to gain the most, they were naturally the most committed. In reality, these warlords were fragmented into factions, each with their own calculations and schemes.
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