In 189 AD, He Jin, the most powerful consort clan member of the Eastern Han Dynasty and holding the position of Grand General, was assassinated by eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo, the Governor of Bingzhou, entered the imperial capital.
The Political Reality Under Dong Zhuo’s Rule
After Dong Zhuo seized control of the imperial government, he committed numerous shameless acts that drew widespread dissatisfaction among officials. For example, he arbitrarily deposed and installed emperors at his will.
However, neither Yuan Wei nor Wang Yun saw the need to risk their lives confronting Dong Zhuo, as it conflicted with their personal interests. As for regional warlords, they already functioned as local despots beyond the court’s control. Whether Dong Zhuo or He Jin held power made little difference to these lords. Therefore, it’s naive to believe many genuinely risked their lives for so-called justice against Dong Zhuo. Human nature inherently seeks advantage and avoids harm – unless forced into life-threatening situations with no alternatives, who would willingly abandon comfort for a life constantly risking death?
Cao Cao’s Unique Predicament
After Dong Zhuo took control of Luoyang, many officials, such as Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, fled the city one after another. See also Yuan Shao’s Opposition to Dong Zhuo.
Cao Cao’s situation differed fundamentally from both court officials and regional warlords. Cao Cao, disgusted by Dong Zhuo’s actions, fled Luoyang. As a result, he was put under Dong Zhuo’s warrant. Thus, he faced only three possible paths forward at that time.
Cao Cao’s Options
First, submitting to Dong Zhuo. He could surrender and become Dong Zhuo’s subordinate, but had he wanted this, he wouldn’t have fled the capital for his hometown, becoming a wanted man. Previously, Dong Zhuo sought to recruit Cao Cao recognizing his family’s influence. But now that Cao Cao had betrayed him once, Dong Zhuo would never trust him again. Should Cao Cao return to the capital, Dong Zhuo might easily execute him under any pretext. Could Cao Cao instead serve another warlord? With Dong Zhuo’s warrant active, despite Cao’s extensive connections, who would openly shelter him? Harboring Cao Cao meant making an enemy of Dong Zhuo – clearly an act of self-sabotage.
Second, going into hiding. Judging by Cao Cao’s prior actions, hoping he’d disappear into obscurity was unrealistic. As the son of officials, ambitious since youth, he’d dared oppose eunuchs when they controlled the court. Such a man harbored grand ambitions, making it impossible for him to live anonymously as a commoner. More importantly, the Cao family differed from ordinary households. Commoners with few members could potentially evade capture in that information-scarce era, but Cao’s extensive clan made this impossible. If Dong Zhuo couldn’t find Cao Cao, his family would inevitably suffer. Thus, hiding to protect his clan was unfeasible.
The Inevitability of Rebellion
Third, rebellion. With his official position lost and concealment impractical, only one path remained: spending his family fortune to raise rebellious troops.
This demonstrates Cao Cao didn’t rebel from extraordinary foresight about Dong Zhuo’s eventual fall or ambitions in chaotic times. Rather, he had no better alternative. Unless he rebelled, only death awaited him and his clan.
Once Cao Cao decided to rebel, Dong Zhuo viewed him as treasonous, guaranteeing punishment for any relatives. Thus, whether from Cao or Xiahou families, even those wanting peaceful lives had no choice but to join him under duress. Although Cao Cao’s call gathered widespread clan support, reality proved brutal – after suffering violent suppression and devastation, they eventually sought refuge with his friend Zhang Miao, Governer of Chenliu.
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