The famous episode of Tao Qian’s Three Cessions of Xuzhou is not a historical fact, but a fictional narrative created in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. In this dramatized account, the aging governor Tao Qian, offers the governorship of Xu Province (Xuzhou) to Liu Bei repeatedly, who in turn humbly refuses each time—three times in total—before finally accepting.
This elaborate scene is designed to elevate Liu Bei as the paragon of virtue and humility, while portraying Tao Qian as a wise and selfless leader who recognizes true talent.
However, this “three-time refusal” never occurred in historical records.
The historical truth: Tao Qian’s final bequest
According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms and Zizhi Tongjian, the core event—Tao Qian entrusting Xu Province to Liu Bei—is indeed historically accurate, though far less theatrical.
In 194 AD, during Cao Cao’s second invasion of Xu Province, Tao Qian, then 63 years old, suffered repeated defeats. His forces, especially the elite Danyang troops on which he had long relied, were severely weakened by Cao Cao’s brutal campaign. Just as the situation seemed hopeless, Cao Cao was forced to withdraw his main army after Lü Bu seized Yan Province (Yanzhou) in the rear.
Exhausted by war and grief, Tao Qian fell gravely ill. Before his death, he summoned Mi Zhu, his chief advisor and Chief Clerk (Bieja), and declared:
“Only Liu Bei can bring peace to this province.”
This final testament was based on three critical realities:
- Military collapse: Tao Qian’s own army was shattered, leaving Xu Province defenseless.
- Lack of a worthy heir: His sons lacked the political acumen and military strength to succeed him.
- Liu Bei as the strategic choice: Liu Bei had already sent troops to assist Xu Province, enjoyed a reputation for benevolence and righteousness, and—crucially—had no deep local ties, making him acceptable to Xu Province’s powerful gentry who feared domination by an entrenched outsider.
Liu Bei’s hesitation and acceptance
After Tao Qian’s death, Mi Zhu led the officials and people of Xu Province in inviting Liu Bei to assume the role of Governor of Xu Province. Contrary to the novel’s depiction of three ceremonial refusals, Liu Bei initially declined only once, citing concerns over his limited military strength and the likelihood of opposition from powerful warlords like Yuan Shu.
It was only after strong persuasion from key figures—including Chen Deng, Kong Rong, and Mi Zhu—that Liu Bei agreed to accept the governorship. There was no dramatic, repeated exchange of offers and refusals.
Moreover, Tao Qian never met Liu Bei in person to “cede” the province. At the time of Tao Qian’s final words, Liu Bei was stationed at Xiaopei, not at Tao Qian’s bedside. The transfer of power was conducted posthumously through Mi Zhu and the provincial elite.
The purpose of the Three Cessions
In reality, the succession was a pragmatic political arrangement born of desperation:
- Tao Qian needed a capable protector for his province.
- Liu Bei needed a stable base of power.
- The local gentry sought a leader who would protect their interests without threatening their autonomy.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms transformed this realistic power transfer into a moral and emotional drama. The “three cessions” serve as a literary device to:
- Idealize Liu Bei as a reluctant, virtuous ruler who accepts power only out of duty.
- Contrast Liu Bei with ambitious warlords like Cao Cao and Yuan Shu.
- Elevate the narrative from mere territorial struggle to a story of righteous succession and moral legitimacy.
A legend that shaped a legacy
While the “Three Cessions of Xuzhou” is fiction, the core act of Tao Qian entrusting Liu Bei with Xu Province is historical. The embellishment reflects the novel’s broader theme: the idealization of Liu Bei’s Shu Han as the rightful heir to Han virtue, in contrast to the perceived ambition and cruelty of his rivals.
Thus, the story endures not as fact, but as symbolic truth—a powerful myth that helped shape the cultural memory of the Three Kingdoms era.
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