By 234 AD, Zhuge Liang had launched his sixth and final Northern Expedition against Cao Wei.
The sixth northern expedition: A war of endurance
Previous campaigns, though tactically successful at times, had consistently failed due to logistical collapse – especially grain shortages. Determined to break this cycle, Zhuge Liang adopted a long-term strategy: he stationed his army at Wuzhangyuan (south of Qishan, modern Shaanxi) and ordered soldiers to cultivate farmland south of the Wei River, living alongside local peasants.
Under strict orders, Shu troops did not harass civilians or take their property, earning goodwill from the populace. To solve the chronic supply problem through treacherous mountain paths, Zhuge Liang – collaborating with craftsmen – developed the legendary “wooden ox and flowing horse”, sophisticated two-wheeled and single-wheeled carts that greatly improved transport efficiency. With ample provisions secured, he vowed: “Until the Central Plains are reclaimed, I shall not withdraw.”
The stalemate with Sima Yi
Opposing him was Sima Yi, the Wei commander from Wen County (Henan) – a shrewd strategist known for his patience and feigned passivity. Having suffered defeats in earlier encounters, Sima Yi now followed Emperor Cao Rui’s explicit order: fortify positions and avoid battle.
Zhuge Liang, desperate to force a decisive engagement, resorted to psychological tactics. He sent repeated challenges, then dispatched soldiers to taunt the Wei camp with insults like “coward” and “shameless.” The provocation worked – Wei officers grew furious and demanded action.
But Sima Yi remained unmoved. When Zhuge Liang escalated by sending women’s clothing – robes, hairpins, earrings, and rouge – as a gift, implying Sima Yi was no better than a timid maiden, even Sima Yi’s composure nearly cracked. Yet after a moment’s rage, he smiled and accepted the “gift,” telling the envoy: “Thank your chancellor for me.”
To placate his enraged troops, Sima Yi pretended to petition the emperor for permission to fight. Cao Rui, understanding the ruse, sent Minister Xin Pi bearing the imperial scepter to reaffirm the no-engagement order. Now, Sima Yi had both authority and excuse to stay entrenched.
A duel of minds
Zhuge Liang saw through the theater immediately. When news of Xin Pi’s arrival reached him, he told Jiang Wei:
“Do you think they’ll fight now?”
Jiang Wei replied:
“Now that Xin Pi is here, Sima Yi will never come out.”
Zhuge Liang nodded in approval:
“Exactly. If he truly wanted to fight, why ask the emperor? ‘Generals on the frontier may disobey court orders’ – that’s the old saying. His request was just for show.”
Realizing swift victory was impossible, Zhuge Liang fell into despair. Chronic overwork had taken its toll. He began suffering from chest pains and exhaustion, sighing deeply as his body weakened.
The weight of duty
During a diplomatic visit, Sima Yi questioned Zhuge Liang’s envoy not about military plans, but about his daily routine: sleep, meals, workload. The envoy revealed:
“Our chancellor rises early, sleeps late. Even punishments of twenty lashes require his personal review. He eats barely a small bowl of rice per meal.”
Sima Yi concluded:
“If he works so hard and eats so little, how can he live long?”
Indeed, Zhuge Liang’s health was collapsing under the burden of total control. Advisers urged him to delegate:
“A ruler should assign roles – like a household: roosters crow, dogs guard, oxen plow, horses pull. If the master does everything, he’ll perish from fatigue.”
Zhuge Liang replied with sorrow:
“I know this well. But the late emperor entrusted the realm to me. I fear my efforts fall short. How can I rest?”
The End of an Era
In 234 AD, at just 54 years old, Zhuge Liang succumbed to illness at Wuzhangyuan. Before dying, he summoned Yang Yi, Jiang Wei, and Fei Yi, giving precise instructions for orderly retreat and rear-guard defense. He lamented to emissary Li Fu:
“I leave this campaign unfinished… After I’m gone, serve the emperor well and strengthen the state.”
His death was kept secret. The Shu army withdrew silently in formation.
The final stratagem: Retreat as attack
When Sima Yi learned the Shu camp had emptied, he exclaimed:
“Zhuge Liang must be dead! Now’s our chance!”
He led a swift pursuit – only to be met by Shu forces suddenly turning around, drums thundering, banners unfurled across valleys and woods. Believing Zhuge Liang had staged yet another trap, Sima Yi halted in confusion. Panic spread; Wei troops fled in disarray, with Sima Yi himself swept backward in the rout.
In truth, Jiang Wei and Yang Yi had executed Zhuge Liang’s last plan:
“When retreating, appear ready to attack.”
Once the Wei army vanished, Shu forces entered the mountains and publicly mourned, raising white banners. The valley echoed with weeping – from generals to common soldiers – for the man who gave everything.
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