In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Cao Cao’s invasion of Xu Province(Xuzhou) is portrayed as a personal quest for vengeance—driven by the tragic murder of his father, Cao Song, and his entire family.
A father’s death and a son’s vengeance
As detailed in Chapters 10 and 11, after Cao Cao established himself in Yan Province(Yanzhou), he sent Ying Shao, the Grand Administrator of Mount Tai, to escort his father from Langye Commandery, where the family had taken refuge.
Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province(Xuzhou), admired Cao Cao’s growing reputation and sought to improve relations through diplomatic means. He volunteered to send his officer Zhang Kai with 500 soldiers to escort Cao Song, along with generous gifts of grain and silk.
But good intentions turned to disaster. Zhang Kai, seeing the caravan of over a thousand wagons filled with gold and jewels, was overcome by greed. He ambushed and slaughtered Cao Song’s entire entourage, seizing the treasure and fleeing to Huainan.
This narrative twist makes Tao Qian morally complicit but not directly responsible—a victim of poor judgment rather than malice. Yet it provides Cao Cao with a justifiable cause for war.
The hidden agenda
Unlike historical accounts, Romance of the Three Kingdoms deliberately minimizes Cao Cao’s strategic motives.
It makes little mention of Xu Province’s geographic importance, economic wealth, or its role in Cao Cao’s long-term expansion. Even when Cao Cao captures over ten cities, the novel frames these gains as byproducts of revenge, not as planned conquests.
The true narrative purpose is twofold:
- To highlight Cao Cao’s ruthlessness—his brutal massacres in Xu Province paint him as a tyrant driven by rage.
- To create a stage for Liu Bei—by showing Xu Province in peril, the novel sets up Liu Bei’s heroic rescue mission, reinforcing his image as a benevolent leader beloved by the people.
Revenge as a pretext for expansion
In truth, Cao Cao’s two major invasions of Xu Province (193 and 194 AD) were driven by a triad of motives: personal vengeance, strategic ambition, and factional rivalry.
While “avenging his father” provided a morally justifiable pretext, seizing Xu Province was the ultimate goal.
Xu Province lay directly southeast of Yan Province, Cao Cao’s base. Controlling both would unify a vast territory in central-eastern China. If Xuzhou remained under Tao Qian or another rival, Cao Cao’s eastern flank would be exposed.
Capturing Xu would allow Cao Cao to:
- Threaten Yuan Shu in the south (based in Nanyang),
- Advance into Qing Province, Beihai to the east,
- Secure a vital economic base—Xu was fertile, wealthy, and commercially active, capable of funding future campaigns.
Thus, the conquest of Xuzhou was not merely revenge—it was a critical step in Cao Cao’s northern unification strategy.
Factional rivalry: The great warlord divide
The late Han era saw the rise of two major alliances:
- Pro-Yuan Shao Coalition: Yuan Shao, Cao Cao, Liu Biao
- Pro-Yuan Shu Coalition: Yuan Shu, Tao Qian, Gongsun Zan
Tao Qian and Cao Cao were natural enemies, not just due to personal conflict, but because they represented opposing power blocs vying for dominance in central China.
For example:
- Yuan Shu initially expanded southward, sending Sun Jian to attack Liu Biao in Jing Province.
- After Sun Jian’s death, Yuan Shu shifted focus northward, attacking Cao Cao’s Yan Province—only to be repelled.
The First War: Tao Qian strikes first (192 AD)
In 192 AD, during the struggle between Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan for control of Ji Province(Jizhou), Tao Qian allied with Gongsun Zan and marched north into Yan Province(Yanzhou), even reaching Fagan County.
This unprovoked invasion marked the first direct conflict between Tao Qian and Cao Cao.
Cao Cao responded with force, and after Yuan Shao defeated Gongsun Zan at Jieqiao, the allied forces—including Liu Bei and Shan Jing—were driven back by Cao Cao and Yuan Shao.
The Second War: Tao Qian’s opportunism (193 AD)
In June 193, Que Xuan rebelled in Xiapi, declaring himself emperor. Instead of suppressing the revolt, Tao Qian joined forces with Que Xuan, attacking Hua and Fei counties in Taishan Commandery (part of Cao Cao’s territory).
This second invasion gave Cao Cao the perfect justification to retaliate. He launched a full-scale campaign, capturing over ten cities in Xu Province.
Tao Qian retreated to Tan County, unable to resist. Cao Cao eventually withdrew due to supply shortages, but the damage was done.
The Third War: The final invasion (194 AD)
In 194 AD, Cao Cao launched his third and most devastating campaign—the one famously depicted in Romance of the Three Kingdoms as a vicious act of revenge.
He swept through Xu Province, massacring civilians. According to the Book of the Later Han, hundreds of thousands were killed, livestock wiped out, and the Si River ran red with blood.
Tao Qian, unable to resist, appealed to Tian Kai, the Inspector of Qing Province. Tian Kai and Liu Bei came to his aid.
But at this critical moment, Cao Cao’s rear collapsed.
The turning point: Chen Gong’s rebellion
Chen Gong had grown disillusioned with Cao Cao’s brutality. He conspired with Zhang Miao, the Administrator of Chenliu, his brother Zhang Chao, and others—including Xu Si and Wang Kai—to rebel.
They invited Lü Bu, the famed warrior, to become the new Governor of Yan Province.
Cao Cao was forced to abandon his campaign and rush back to defend his heartland.
With Cao Cao gone, Tao Qian’s immediate threat vanished—but he was already a broken man.
Soon after, Tao Qian died, and Liu Bei took control of Xuzhou (Xu Province).
Thus, while Romance of the Three Kingdoms frames Cao Cao as the aggressor driven by vengeance, historical reality shows a more complex picture: Tao Qian was often the instigator, and Cao Cao’s campaigns, though brutal, were responses to real strategic threats.
In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, imperial authority waned, and warlords rose to power. Their incessant conflicts were inevitable. Debating who initiated the wars is of little significance, for in such a fractured era, prolonged peace among the warlords was unattainable—war would erupt with or without justification.
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