A Brief Thaw: The Rise of the “Three Gentlemen”
After years of eunuch tyranny, Emperor Huan of Han, wary of student unrest following earlier protests, made a tactical concession. He appointed three men deeply admired by the Imperial Academy scholars:
- Li Ying as Commandant of Justice (Sili Xiaowei),
- Chen Fan as Grand Commandant (Taiwei),
- Wang Chang as Minister of the Imperial Secretariat.
The students hailed them as paragons:
“Li Ying is the model of the realm; Chen Fan fears no tyrant; Wang Chang is a man of virtue.”
Their praise soon turned into public moral judgment – naming who were “gentlemen” (junzi) and who were “petty men” (xiaoren). The eunuchs understood immediately: they were the targets.
In retaliation, they twisted Confucius’ words “The gentleman unites but does not form cliques” (Analects 15:22) – and branded their critics “partisans” (dang ren). Since true gentlemen do not form “parties,” these “dang ren” must be disloyal schemers.
Thus began the deadly feud between eunuchs and the Partisan Scholars.
Li Ying Draws First Blood
No sooner had Li Ying taken office than he received accusations against Zhang Shuo, magistrate of Yewang (modern Qinxian, Henan) – a notoriously corrupt official and younger brother of the powerful eunuch Zhang Rang.
Knowing Li Ying’s reputation, Zhang Shuo fled to the capital and hid in his brother’s mansion.
Undeterred, Li Ying stormed Zhang Rang’s residence, dragged Zhang Shuo out “like a chick,” and imprisoned him. Before Zhang Rang could intervene, Zhang Shuo was executed.
Zhang Rang rushed to Emperor Huan in tears – but since Zhang Shuo had confessed, the emperor could not punish Li Ying. Still, he resented Li Ying’s defiance of eunuch power.
The Trap of the “Prophet” Murderer
Soon after, a charlatan named Zhang Cheng, closely tied to eunuchs, claimed he could predict imperial decrees by reading the wind. When Eunuch Hou Lan secretly told him a general amnesty was imminent, Zhang Cheng staged a public “prophecy” – then ordered his son to commit murder as a bet.
Li Ying arrested the killer. The next day, the amnesty decree arrived.
Zhang Cheng boasted: “See? My son will be freed!”
But Li Ying declared:
“Those who commit crimes knowing amnesty is coming do not deserve pardon.”
He executed the murderer.
Furious, Zhang Cheng conspired with Hou Lan and Zhang Rang. They drafted a memorial accusing Li Ying of forming a partisan clique with students and scholars to defame the court and corrupt public morals. Attached was a list – the first official “Partisan List.”
Emperor Huan, long hostile to critical intellectuals, ordered Grand Commandant Chen Fan to arrest the named individuals.
Chen Fan refused:”These are the empire’s finest!”
Enraged, the emperor bypassed him, imprisoned Li Ying, and soon rounded up over 200 scholars, including Du Mi and Chen Xiang. Others fled into hiding.
Only Chen Shi, a revered sage, chose to surrender:
“If I flee, who will stand firm? My presence may give others courage.”
He walked voluntarily into prison.
The First Purge and the “Lifetime Ban”
Chen Fan submitted a passionate defense of the partisans. In response, Emperor Huan dismissed him from office.
In prison, Li Ying devised a brilliant countermove: he spread word that many eunuchs’ own sons and nephews were also his “partisans.”
Terrified of guilt by association, the eunuchs panicked. They urged the emperor:”The heavens are disturbed – grant a general amnesty!”
Emperor Huan complied. The 200+ partisans were released – but with a cruel caveat: they were “banned for life” jin gu), forever barred from holding office.
That winter (168 CE), Emperor Huan died after a chaotic 21-year reign. The dynasty teetered on collapse.
A New Hope: The Dou Regency
With no heir, Empress Dou (Emperor Huan’s third wife) summoned her father, Dou Wu, and installed twelve-year-old Liu Hong – great-grandson of Prince Kai of Hejian – as Emperor Ling.
As regent, Empress Dowager Dou appointed Dou Wu as Grand General and recalled the exiled partisans: Chen Fan became Grand Commandant again; Li Ying and Du Mi returned to court.
For a moment, the Han seemed reborn.
Yet Empress Dou, isolated in the palace, grew dependent on eunuchs Cao Jie and Wang Fu, who flattered her endlessly. She granted their every request – titles, offices, favors.
Alarmed, the aging Chen Fan (nearly 80) warned Dou Wu:
“Unless we exterminate the eunuchs, the realm cannot be saved. I stay only to help you purge this evil.”
Dou Wu agreed – and petitioned his daughter to execute Cao Jie and Wang Fu.
But Empress Dou hesitated:”Has any Han emperor ruled without eunuchs?”
Chen Fan then submitted a direct memorial listing the eunuchs’ crimes and demanding their execution.
The plot was exposed.
The Eunuch Coup: Blood in the Palace
Forewarned, Cao Jie and Wang Fu struck first. They seized the young emperor, claiming:
“Dou Wu and Chen Fan plan to depose Your Majesty!”
Armed with the imperial seal, they declared the two men traitors.
Dou Wu gathered loyal troops but was overwhelmed and committed suicide.
Chen Fan, undaunted, led eighty students into the palace to confront the eunuchs. He was cut down on the spot.
The purge began:
- Families of Chen Fan and Dou Wu exterminated;
- Li Ying, Du Mi, and other partisans dismissed and exiled.
Yet their moral authority only grew. From the countryside, they continued to inspire dissent.
The Second Persecution: The Great Partisan Hunt
In Shanyang Commandery, scholar Zhang Jian had previously exposed Eunuch Hou Lan’s corruption. Now, Hou Lan retaliated, accusing Zhang Jian of forming a local partisan cell of 20+ men plotting rebellion.
Seizing the chance, Cao Jie pushed for a second nationwide crackdown.
Fourteen-year-old Emperor Ling, bewildered, asked:”What is a ‘partisan’? Why arrest them?”
Cao Jie lied:”They seek to overthrow the throne!”
Terrified, the emperor approved mass arrests.
When warned to flee, Li Ying refused:
“I am sixty. Where would I run? My death may spare others.”
He surrendered – and was later executed. So was Du Mi.
In total:
- 600–700 partisans killed or banned;
- Over 1,000 students imprisoned.
The Fugitive and the Family Who Chose Honor
Hou Lan remained furious: Zhang Jian was still at large. The emperor issued an edict:”Harboring Zhang Jian is treason.”
Zhang Jian fled from house to house. Many paid dearly: Families imprisoned or executed for sheltering him.
Among them was the Kong family of Lu Commandery (Shandong). Kong Bao, Zhang Jian’s friend, was away when Zhang arrived. His sixteen-year-old brother Kong Rong took him in.
When officials came, Zhang Jian had escaped – but both Kong Bao and Kong Rong were arrested.
At trial:
- Kong Rong: “I hosted him – punish me.”
- Kong Bao: “He came for me – spare my brother.”
- Their mother: “I am head of household – blame me.”
The local court, moved and confused, referred the case to the capital. The emperor sentenced only Kong Bao.
The Scholar Who Vanished into the Soil
Not all chose martyrdom. Xia Fu of Chenliu (Kaifeng), also on the partisan list, refused to flee and endanger others.
He shaved his head and beard, changed his name, and became a hired laborer in Linlü Mountain (Henan). Day after day, he toiled – his hands calloused, his face sun-blackened – until no one recognized the once-celebrated scholar.
He chose survival – not for himself, but to end the chain of suffering his presence caused.
Thus, in silence and sacrifice, the conscience of the Han endured – even as its empire crumbled.
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