The first massacre of Xuzhou by Cao Cao [Three Kingdoms]

Historically, Cao Cao carried out two large-scale massacres in Xuzhou. The first occurred in 193. According to According to Romance of the Three Kingdoms, when his father was killed by a general under the command of Tao Qian, the governor of Xuzhou, Cao Cao led his army to attack Tao Qian, capturing over ten cities. Tao Qian was defeated and retreated to Tan County. Cao Cao’s forces massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians in these cities. However the history is more complex than the novel.

The rebellion of Que Xuan

In June of 193 AD, Que Xuan, a minor rebel leader, raised an army of several thousand men in Pizhou (Xiapi), within the territory of Xu Province (Xuzhou), governed by Tao Qian. Rather than suppressing the uprising—a duty expected of a Han-appointed governor—Tao Qian struck a secret alliance with Que Xuan.

Together, they launched a joint campaign westward into Cao Cao’s Yan Province (Yanzhou). Their forces invaded Mount Tai Commandery and sent raiding parties into Ren Cheng Kingdom, looting and plundering as they went.

After achieving their military objectives, Tao Qian revealed his ruthless nature: he betrayed and murdered Que Xuan, absorbing his troops into his own army. This act not only consolidated Tao Qian’s power but also demonstrated his opportunistic and treacherous leadership.

Cao Cao’s wrath

At the time, Cao Cao had just defeated Yuan Shu in western Yan Province. Upon learning that Tao Qian had invaded his territory and ravaged Mount Tai, he was furious. Viewing the attack as both a military and personal affront, Cao Cao immediately mobilized his forces and marched east to retaliate.

He dispatched Yu Jin to attack Guangqi County, the western gateway to Pengcheng Kingdom—a strategic entry point into Tao Qian’s domain. Cao Cao himself, along with Cao Ren, followed closely behind with the main army.

In a sign of their alliance, Yuan Shao, Cao Cao’s nominal superior and political patron, sent his general Zhu Ling with reinforcements to assist in the campaign.

The fall of Guangqi

Yü Jin swiftly captured Guangqi, securing a vital foothold in Xu Province. With the western defenses breached, Cao Cao appointed Cao Ren as vanguard commander and pushed deeper into Pengcheng.

Along the way, Cao Ren engaged and killed Lü You, one of Tao Qian’s most capable generals, further weakening the enemy’s morale.

Tao Qian, realizing the gravity of the threat, assembled a large army and marched to Pengcheng to make a stand. Though he had initiated the conflict by attacking Cao Cao’s territory, Tao Qian appeared unprepared for the ferocity and discipline of Cao Cao’s counterattack.

The Battle of Pengcheng

The ensuing Battle of Pengcheng was a catastrophic defeat for Tao Qian. His forces were routed, suffering massive casualties. Historical records in the Zizhi Tongjian and Sanguozhi state that tens of thousands of Tao Qian’s soldiers were killed, their bodies so numerous that they clogged the Si River.

Tao Qian barely escaped with his life, fleeing back to his capital city of Tan County, where he fortified his defenses.

Undeterred, Cao Cao pursued relentlessly. After capturing Pengcheng, he advanced northward, taking Fuyang County, and then laid siege to Tan, the heart of Xu Province.

Panic spread throughout Xu Province. The people, fearing Cao Cao’s wrath, lived in terror as the enemy army closed in on their last stronghold.

The arrival of reinforcements: Liu Bei to the rescue

Desperate, Tao Qian sent urgent appeals for aid to Tian Kai, a general stationed in Qing Province, and to Liu Bei, who was serving under Tian Kai.

Liu Bei, already gaining a reputation for loyalty and martial prowess, immediately marched south with Tian Kai’s forces to relieve Tan.

However, Cao Cao’s army, having fought battles against Yuan Shu and then marched deep into hostile territory, was now exhausted and overextended. More critically, supplies were running dangerously low.

Upon learning that Liu Bei and Tian Kai were approaching, and facing the prospect of a two-front war, Cao Cao made a strategic decision: he lifted the siege of Tan.

The southern campaign and the sack of Xuzhou

Instead of retreating directly, Cao Cao diverted his army southward into Pizhou Kingdom (Xiapi). There, he launched a brutal campaign of retribution, capturing three counties in succession: Qulu, Xiaqiu, and Suiling.

According to historical accounts, particularly Pei Songzhi’s annotations to the Sanguozhi citing the Wajie Ji, Cao Cao’s troops committed widespread massacres. Cities were burned to the ground, civilians slaughtered, and even chickens and dogs were exterminated—a phrase used in Chinese historiography to emphasize total annihilation.

This campaign of terror served both as revenge for Tao Qian’s earlier raids and as a warning to other warlords about the cost of defying Cao Cao.

Having completed his punitive expedition, Cao Cao withdrew his forces back to Yan Province (Yanzhou), ending the first major war between him and Tao Qian.

Historical vs. Literary Depictions

In Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) and Sima Guang’s Zizhi Tongjian, this conflict is portrayed as a brutal but strategically sound campaign by Cao Cao, highlighting both his military effectiveness and his capacity for extreme violence.

In Luo Guanzhong’s Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the narrative is simplified. The rebellion of Que Xuan is omitted, and the war is framed more morally, emphasizing Cao Cao’s vengeance for his father’s murder—an event that historically occurred after this first campaign (in 194 AD). The novel thus condenses and dramatizes the conflict, portraying Cao Cao as a vengeful warlord and Tao Qian as a virtuous but weak ruler in need of Liu Bei’s protection.

Legacy of the First Cao-Tao War in Xuzhou

Though Cao Cao failed to capture Tan and conquer Xu Province, the campaign demonstrated his rising power and ruthless determination. Tao Qian, though surviving, was severely weakened, setting the stage for Cao Cao’s second invasion in 194 AD—this time under the banner of avenging his father’s death.

The war also marked Liu Bei’s emergence as a regional player, earning him favor with Tao Qian, who would later entrust him with the governance of Xu Province on his deathbed.