The culture of Names and Courtesy Names in Three Kingdoms

In ancient China, a person’s name typically consisted of three parts: family name, given name, and courtesy name (or style name). Some individuals also had “clan name” or “pseudonym” (usually self-given titles). This article will briefly introduce the composition and characteristics of ancient Chinese names, using examples from Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Family Name: Identifier of Lineage and Bloodline

The earliest “family names” were often related to “female” characters (e.g., 姬, 姜, 姒, 嬴), reflecting the matrilineal clan system of primitive society, where descendants inherited their mother’s surname, embodying the social characteristic of “knowing the mother but not the father”.

After the transition to a patrilineal society, “family names” shifted to “inheritance from the father” and were combined with “clan names”. Clan names were branches of family names, used to distinguish different families or lineages under the same surname. Multiple clan names could derive from a single family name. Additionally, clan names were often associated with fiefs, official titles, or professions.

During the pre-Qin period, “family names” and “clan names” were strictly distinguished: nobles had family names, while commoners had none. For example, “庖丁(Pao Ding)” and “鲁班(Lu Ban)” — “丁(Ding)” and “班(Ban)” were given names, while “庖(Pao)” and “鲁(Lu)” referred to professions or origins respectively. After the Han Dynasty, surnames gradually merged, and commoners acquired surnames, forming the modern concept of surnames.

Although commoners had surnames after the Qin and Han dynasties, “prominent surnames” such as “Liu)”, “Wang” and “Zhang” in the Han Dynasty were still tied to aristocratic influence, reflecting social status differences.

Under the ancient “family-owned empire” system, emperors often used their surnames as dynastic symbols (e.g., Liu for Han, Li for Tang, Zhu for Ming). Ordinary people sharing the emperor’s surname might be imagined to have a “blood connection,” even exploited as political tools. For instance, in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei claimed descent from Liu Sheng, Prince of Zhongshan, though without solid evidence. He used the same surname to construct legitimacy and eventually declared himself emperor of Shu Han.

Given Name: Personal Identity Symbol, Carrying Parental Expectations

The “given name” was the “formal name” given by parents or elders after birth, used for daily address (only by elders to juniors or superiors to subordinates; addressing peers or elders by their given name directly was considered impolite). It served as the most basic identity marker and embodied parental expectations for their children’s lives.

For example:

• Liu Bei (刘备): “备” means “to possess, complete, thorough.”
• Cao Cao (曹操): “操” means “integrity, conduct.”
• Zhuge Liang (诸葛亮): “亮” means “bright, radiant, outstanding, cheerful, clear.”
• Cao Pi (曹丕): “丕” means “great, prosperous,” foreshadowing his ambition to inherit his father’s legacy and found the Wei state.
• Guo Jia (郭嘉): “嘉” means “beautiful, auspicious.”
• Sun Quan (孙权): “权” means “balance, strategy.”
• Zhou Yu (周瑜): “瑜” means “beautiful jade,” symbolizing his talent and gentle demeanor.
• Huang Zhong (黄忠): “忠” directly signifies “loyalty and righteousness.”
• Sima Yi (司马懿): “懿” means “beautiful, profound.”

Courtesy Name: Social Address in Adulthood

The “courtesy name”, also known as “style name”, was given by elders or teachers upon reaching adulthood (20 for men, 15 for women in ancient China). It was used among peers or by juniors addressing elders, serving as a supplement and extension of the given name. The courtesy name often echoed or complemented the given name.

For example:

• Cao Cao (曹操): Given name “操” (integrity), courtesy name “Mengde” (孟德)—”德” (virtue) synonymizes with “操,” and “孟” denotes birth order (eldest son).
• Zhuge Liang (诸葛亮): Given name “亮” (bright), courtesy name “Kongming” (孔明)—”明” (bright) synonymizes with “亮,” and “孔” means “very, extremely” (i.e., “very bright”).
• Zhao Yun (赵云): Given name “云” (cloud), courtesy name “Zilong” (子龙)—”龙” (dragon) controls clouds and rain, and “子” is an honorific for men (i.e., “clouds born from dragons”).
• Zhou Yu (周瑜): Given name “瑜” (beautiful jade), courtesy name “Gongjin” (公瑾)—”瑜” and “瑾” are synonyms for “beautiful jade,” and “公” is an honorific (i.e., “noble gentleman like beautiful jade”).
• Chen Gong (陈宫): Given name “宫” (palace, court), courtesy name “Gongtai” (公台)—”台” refers to “high platform, government office,” and “公” is an honorific (i.e., “noble gentleman in high political power”).
• Huang Zhong (黄忠): Given name “忠” (loyalty), courtesy name “Hansheng” (汉升)—”汉” refers to the Han Dynasty, and “升” means “to uplift, uphold” (i.e., “loyal upholder of the Han Dynasty”).
• Zhang Fei (张飞): Given name “飞” (to fly), courtesy name “Yide” (翼德)—”翼” (wing) enables flying, and “德” (virtue) adds moral dimension.
• Guan Yu (关羽): Given name “羽” (feather, wing), old style name “Changsheng”(长生), means “immortality”, new courtesy name “Yunchang” (云长)—”云” (cloud) and “长” (vast, eternal) evoke imagery of “ascending to immortality” or “feathers transforming into flight,” drawing from Daoist concepts of transcending mortality and achieving divinity.