Chapter 42: Canons and Explanations (I)
On Causality and Cognition
“Gu” (Cause/Condition) is divided into Minor Cause and Major Cause. A Minor Cause is that which, if present, does not necessarily produce the effect, but if absent, the effect is impossible. It is like a part of a whole, or a point on a line. A Major Cause is that which, if present, necessarily produces the effect, like vision forming a complete sight. “Ti” (Body/Part) is like the “one” in “two,” or the endpoint of a ruler.
“Zhi Cai” (Cognitive Faculty): The faculty of knowing is the means by which we know; it necessarily possesses the potential to know, like the faculty of sight.
“Lv” (Deliberation): Deliberation is using one’s cognitive faculty to seek, but not necessarily obtaining, like glancing sideways.
“Zhi” (Knowledge): Knowledge is using one’s faculty to encounter things and form a representation of them, like seeing.
“Shu” (Comprehension): Comprehension is using one’s faculty to analyze things, making the knowledge clear, like illumination.
“Ren” (Benevolence): Loving oneself is not for the sake of using oneself, unlike loving a horse. This love is evident.
“Yi” (Righteousness): Taking the world as good in one’s will and being able to benefit it, without necessarily being employed.
“Li” (Ritual): The noble value public justice; the base value personal reputation. Both possess reverence and negligence; this is a discourse on hierarchical differences.
“Xing” (Action): Acting not for a good name is true action; acting for a good name is mere skill (hypocrisy), like a thief acting virtuously.
“Shi” (Substance): Substance is the manifestation of one’s will and spirit, making others perceive you as you are, unlike mere jade-like sounds.
“Zhong” (Loyalty): Not harming a weak child; stopping one’s step with a respectful demeanor.
“Xiao” (Filial Piety): Taking parents as good and being able to benefit them, though not always achieving it.
On Speech, Rewards, and Spacetime
“Xin” (Trust): Not merely in the appropriateness of words, but in making others see truth as clearly as seeing a city or finding gold.
“Nai” (Succession): Meeting people, the masses follow in order.
“Wei” (Doing): Doing this for the sake of that; if not done, it is not.
“Lian” (Integrity): Doing it oneself, knowing the danger. If the order is wrong, one does not carry it out.
“Ren” (Responsibility): Doing what one hates to fulfill others’ urgent needs.
“Yong” (Courage): Named for daring to do this; not diminished by not daring to do that.
“Li” (Strength): Weight pressing down is heaviness; lifting weight with effort is strength.
“Sheng” (Life): Like the existence of a pillar; the fate of Shang is not inevitable.
“Wo” (Sleep) relates to dreams. “Ping” (Tranquility) is a peaceful state.
“Li” (Benefit): Getting this and rejoicing is benefit. If it causes harm, it is not.
“Hai” (Harm): Getting this and feeling aversion is harm. If it brings benefit, it is not.
“Zhi” (Order): My affairs are ordered; others govern north and south.
“Yu” (Praise): Must be based on conduct, spoken with joy, inviting supervision.
“Fei” (Blame): Must also be based on conduct, spoken sincerely.
“Ju” (Naming): Using a term to point to a substance.
“Yan” (Speech): Emitted from the mouth, expressing the people, like drawn figures. Speech must be as solid as stone.
“Qie” (Moreover/For now): From the front, “qie”; from the back, “yi”; occurring now is also “qie.” Like a stone; a ruler uses such names.
“Gong” (Merit): Does not wait for time, like wearing clothes against the cold.
“Zui” (Crime): Not within prohibitions, only harming the innocent; perhaps leniency.
“Shang” (Reward): Superiors repaying subordinates’ merit.
“Fa” (Punishment): Superiors penalizing subordinates’ crimes.
“Dong” (Equality): Two people seeing the same pillar, like serving a ruler together.
“Jiu” (Duration): Past, present, morning, evening.
“Yu” (Space): East, west, south, north, and center.
“Qiong” (Finitude): Where less than a foot cannot fit is finite; where nowhere lacks a foot is infinite.
“Jin” (Exhaustion): Stopping movement.
“Shi” (Beginning): Time may have duration or not; “beginning” must have no duration.
“Hua” (Transformation): Like a frog becoming a quail.
“Sun” (Diminution): Removing a part of a whole; what remains is diminished.
“Xuan” (Cleverness): Enlightening the people.
“Ku” (Storehouse): The appearance of regions and caves is constant.
“Dong” (Motion): Like a door pivot leaving its socket.
“Zhi” (Rest): Unceasing without duration is absolute, like “an ox is not a horse,” or an arrow passing a pillar. Unceasing with duration is absurd, like “a horse is not a horse,” or a person crossing a bridge.
“Bi” (Necessity): Holding firm, like brothers; one is right, one is wrong; this is the necessity of right and wrong.
On Identity, Geometry, and Logic
“Tong” (Sameness): Jie and Kuang are equally long. Mental agreement is extending oneself to others.
“Hou” (Thickness): Only the all-encompassing is great.
“Yuan” (Circle): Drawn with a compass.
“Fang” (Square): Seen with a carpenter’s square.
“Bei” (Double): Two feet and one foot differ by one foot.
“Duan” (Point): This has no internal sameness (indivisible).
“You Jian” (Having an interval): The space between.
“Jian” (Interval): That which is between.
“Chi” (Ruler): Before a region and after a point, not between point and region.
“Ji” (Reaching): Reaching is not the same as leveling.
“Lu” (Void): The space between two trees, where there is no wood.
“Ying” (Fullness): No fullness without thickness. For a ruler, it applies everywhere.
“De Er” (Getting Two): Hardness and whiteness are in different places, not full, mutually exclusive, thus external to each other.
“Ying” (Intersection): Rulers intersect without exhaustion; points intersect with exhaustion; ruler and point sometimes exhaust, sometimes not. Hardness and whiteness intersect exhaustively; physical bodies do not.
“Duan” (Endpoint): Two things must have endpoints to be compared.
“Ci” (Sequence): Must be without thickness to be sequential.
“Fa” (Standard): Intention, compass, and circle can all be standards.
“Nai” (Emulation): People emulating is like following a standard.
“Bi” (That): An ox’s pivot is not an ox; they are two, not mutually negating.
“Bian” (Disputation): One says “ox,” another says “not ox.” This is disputing “that.” Both cannot be right; if not both right, one must be wrong, unlike appropriately calling it a dog.
On Action and Motivation
“Wei” (Action): Wanting to chop off one’s finger without knowing the harm is the fault of wisdom. If wisdom has carefully examined the harm but one still wants to do it, one should avoid it. This is like eating dried meat: if the harm of its spoilage is unknown and one eats it anyway, doubt does not stop desire. If the harm outside the wall is unknown, and one runs toward it but gains strength, one does not run; here, doubt stops desire. Examining the limits of knowledge and the logic of desire: chopping meat is not comprehension; chopping a finger is not stupidity. Doing and not doing are mutually doubtful; this is not planning.
“Yi” (Completion): Making clothes is completion; curing a disease is cessation.
“Shi” (Command): Ordering is commanding, not necessarily achieving wetness; “cause” requires the completion of the action.
“Ming” (Name): Naming things is a universal term; substances require many terms. Naming “horse” is a class term; if the substance exists, this name must be used. Naming “Zang” (slave) is a private term; this name applies only to this substance. Sounds from the mouth all have names, like surnames and given names. Calling a dog “quan” is naming; saying “dog and quan” is citing; scolding a dog is adding.
“Zhi” (Knowing): Transmitted knowledge is hearing; unerring reasoning is explaining; personal observation is experiencing.
“What is used to predicate is the name; what is predicated is the substance. Name and substance coupled is matching. Will and action constitute doing.
“Wen” (Hearing): Being told is transmission; personal observation is experiencing.
“Jian” (Seeing): Time is substance; two is exhaustive.
“Gu” (Ancient): Weapons standing, returning to the center.
“Zhi Gong” (Will and Merit): Correctness.
“Zang Zhi Wei” (The slave’s action): Appropriateness.
“Fei Bi Bi Bu You”: Necessity.
“The Sage uses but does not insist; what is necessary needs no doubt. The impartial supports both sides without bias.
“Wei” (Doing): Early platform is existence; disease is cessation. Buying and selling is exchange. Clearing the sky is sweeping. Following growth is governance. A frog buying is transformation.
“Tong” (Sameness): Two names, one substance is identical sameness; not outside the whole is component sameness; in the same room is spatial sameness; having something in common is class sameness.
“Yi” (Difference): Two must differ in duality; unconnected is non-component; different locations is non-spatial; having nothing in common is non-class.
“Intersection of Same and Different”: In a good household, forgiving presence and absence. Comparison is more or less. A worm returning to the garden is going and coming. A bird bending tung wood is hard and soft. A sword’s edge is life and death. A maiden in a room, mother and child, is elder and younger. Absolute victory is white and black. Center is side. Discussing conduct and learning substance is right and wrong. Difficulty in lodging is completion or incompletion. Brothers are both suitable. Body present, will gone is existence or non-existence. Huo as a surname is causality. Appropriate price is noble and base.
On Rules of Disputation
“Nuo” (Assent): Stopping beyond the circle of the city wall. There are five types: following (agreeing), departing (disagreeing), foreknowledge, affirmation (shi), and permission (ke). Length, front/back, and weight are used for analogy. Holding fast to preconceptions is hard to achieve; words must aim to achieve success; the nine rules seek firm adherence.
“Fa” (Method/Standard): A method takes what is the same, observes the clever, transmits the standard, takes this and chooses that, asks for causes, and observes suitability. Because some people are black and some are not, one must stop saying “people are black.” Because some people are black and some are not, one must stop saying “people are black.” Because some love people and some do not, one must stop saying “the heart loves people.” Which is appropriate? When someone cites an example claiming it applies here, one should cite a counterexample to question it. This is like the Sage who criticizes but does not absolutely condemn.
To rectify the five types of assent, one must ground them in knowledge and explanation. Violating the five types of assent is like carrying a heavy burden on one’s back: there is no uprightness and no explanation. Applying the five types of assent correctly is as natural as nature itself.
Note
The Later Mohists:
Unlike the earlier chapters of the Mozi which focus on ethics and politics, this chapter belongs to the “Mohist Canons”. It represents the work of later Mohist logicians, scientists, and philosophers who developed a highly sophisticated system of formal logic, semantics, and natural science, making them pioneers in the history of Chinese analytical philosophy.
Formal Logic and Causality:
The text introduces one of the world’s earliest formal definitions of causality, distinguishing between the “Minor Cause” (a necessary but not sufficient condition) and the “Major Cause” (a sufficient condition). This anticipates modern logical frameworks by millennia.
Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge):
The Mohists categorized knowledge into three distinct types: transmitted knowledge (hearing from others), explanatory knowledge (reasoning/understanding), and personal knowledge (direct empirical observation). This reflects a strong empiricist tradition.
Philosophy of Language:
The chapter deeply explores the relationship between “Names” (Ming) and “Substances/Reality” (Shi). It categorizes names into universal names (Da), class names (Lei), and private/individual names (Si), establishing a foundational semantic theory.
Ancient Geometry and Physics: The text contains some of the earliest known definitions in Chinese geometry, defining concepts like the “point” (Duan – an indivisible unit), “line,” “circle,” and “square” through the tools used to draw them (compass and square). It also touches on physics, defining “motion,” “rest,” “time” (Jiu), and “space” (Yu).
Rules of Disputation (Bian):
The Mohists laid down strict rules for logical debate, emphasizing the law of non-contradiction (two contradictory statements cannot both be true) and the use of counterexamples to test universal claims.
Frog becoming a quail (蛙为鹑):
Used as a classic example of “transformation” (Hua), reflecting ancient Chinese biological observations or mythological beliefs regarding species metamorphosis.
Jie and Kuang (捷与狂):
Likely historical or legendary figures used as a geometric analogy to demonstrate that two different entities can share a specific attribute (equal length), illustrating the concept of “class sameness” (类同).
故。小故，有之不必然，无之必不然。体也，若有端。大故，有之必无然，若见之成见也。体，若二之一，尺之端也。知材，知也者，所以知也，而必知，若明。虑：虑也者，以其知有求也，而不必得之，若睨。知：知也者，以其知过物而能貌之，若见。𢜔：𢜔也者，以其知论物，而其知之也著，若明。仁，爱己者，非为用己也，不若爱马，著若明。义，志以天下为芬，而能能利之，不必用。礼，贵者公，贱者名，而俱有敬僈焉，等异论也。行，所为不善名，行也；所为善名，巧也，若为盗。实，其志气之见也，使人如己，不若金声玉服。忠，不利弱子亥，足将入止容。孝，以亲为芬，而能能利亲，不必得。
信，不以其言之当也，使人视城得金。佴，与人、遇人，众循。为是为是之台彼也，弗为也。廉，己惟为之，知其諰也。所令非，身弗行。任，为身之所恶，以成人之所急。勇，以其敢于是也命之，不以其不敢于彼也害之。力，重之谓下，与重，奋也。生，楹之生，商不可必也。卧，梦。平，惔然。利，得是而喜，则是利也。其害也，非是也。害，得是而恶，则是害也。其利也，非是也。治，吾事治矣，人有治南北。誉之，必其行也，其言之忻，使人督之。诽，必其行也，其言之忻。举，告以文名，举彼实也。故言也者，诸口能之，出民者也，民若画俿也。言也，谓言犹石致也。
且，自前曰且，自后曰已，方然亦且。若石者也，君以若名者也。功，不待时，若衣裘。罪，不在禁，惟害无罪，殆姑。赏，上报下之功也。罚，上报下之罪也。侗，二人而俱见是楹也，若事君。久，古今旦莫。宇，东西家南北。穷，或不容尺，有穷；莫不容尺，无穷也。尽，但止动。始，时或有久，或无久，始当无久。化，若蛙为鹑。损，偏去也者，兼之体也；其体或去或存，谓其存者损。儇，昫民也。库，区穴若，斯貌常。动，偏祭从者，户枢免瑟。止，无久之不止，当牛非马，若矢过楹。有久之不止，当马非马，若人过梁。必，谓台执者也，若弟兄，一然者，一不然者，必不必也，是非必也。
同，捷与狂之同长也。心中，自是往相若也。厚，惟无所大。圜，规写攴也。方，矩见攴也。倍，二尺与尺，但去一。端，是无同也。有间，谓夹之者也。间，谓夹者也。尺，前于区穴而后于端，不夹于端与区内。及，及非齐之及也。纑，间虚也者，两木之间，谓其无木者也。盈，无盈无厚。于尺，无所往而不得。得二，坚异处不相盈，相非，是相外也。撄，尺与尺俱不尽，端与端俱尽，尺与或尽或不尽，坚白之撄相尽，体撄不相尽。端。仳，两有端而后可。次，无厚而后可。法，意、规、员三也，俱可以为法。佴，然也者，民若法也。彼，凡牛枢，非牛，两也，无以非也。辩，或谓之牛，谓之非牛，是争彼也，是不俱当；不俱当，必或不当，不若当犬。
为，欲斫其指，智不知其害，是智之罪也。若智之慎文也，无遗于其害也，而犹欲斫之，则离之。是犹食脯也，骚之利害，未可知也，欲而骚，是不以所疑止所欲也。廧外之利害，未可知也，趋之而得力，则弗趋也，是以所疑止所欲也。观为穷知而于欲之理，斫脯而非𢜔也，斫指而非愚也，所为与不所与为相疑也，非谋也。
已，为衣，成也；治病，亡也。使，令谓，谓也，不必成湿；故也，必待所为之成也。名，物，达也，有实必待文多也。命之马，类也，若实也者，必以是名也。命之臧，私也，是名也，止于是实也。声出口，俱有名，若姓宇。洒谓狗犬，命也。狗犬，举也。叱狗，加也。知，传受之，闻也；方不㢓，说也；身观焉，亲也。所以谓，名也；所谓，实也；名实耦，合也；志行，为也。闻，或告之，传也；身观焉，亲也。见，时者，体也；二者，尽也。古，兵立，反中；志工，正也。臧之为，宜也。非彼必不有，必也。圣者用而勿必，必也者可勿疑。仗者，两而勿偏。
为，早台，存也。病，亡也。买鬻，易也。霄尽，荡也。顺长，治也。蛙买，化也。同，二名一实，重同也；不外于兼，体同也；俱处于室，合同也；有以同，类同也。异，二必异，二也；不连属，不体也；不同所，不合也；不有同，不类也。同异交得，于福家良，恕有无也。比度，多少也。免蚓还园，去就也。鸟折用桐，坚柔也。剑尤早，生死也。处室子，子母，长少也。两绝胜，白黑也。中央，旁也。论行行行学实，是非也。难宿，成未也。兄弟，俱适也。身处志往，存亡也。霍为姓，故也。贾宜，贵贱也。
诺，超城员止也。相从、相去、先知、是、可，五色。长短、前后、轻重援。执服难成，言务成之，九则求执之。法，法取同，观巧，传法，取此择彼，问故观宜。以人之有黑者，有不黑者也，止黑人；与以有爱于人，有不爱于人，心爱人，是孰宜心？彼举然者，以为此其然也，则举不然者而问之。若圣人有非而不非。正五诺，皆人于知有说；过五诺，若负，无直无说；用五诺，若自然矣。
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