Chapter 41: Canons – Part II
Rest (Zhi): Staying within a category of motion. Explanation lies in sameness.
The coexistence of subject and attribute: Which truly exists? There are four divergent theories.
The difficulty of analogical reasoning lies in the difference in size.
The Five Elements do not constantly overcome each other. Explanation lies in suitability.
Things share the same names but have different meanings: “Two” and “Dou” (measure vs. vessel), “Ai” (benevolence vs. affection), “Shi” (food vs. to eat), “Zhao” (to summon vs. signboard), “Bai” (white vs. fair), “Shi” (to look vs. sight), “Li” (beautiful vs. attached), “Fu” (husband vs. adult male), “Lv” (shoes vs. to tread). If one takes only a partial meaning and insists it is absolute, it is wrong. Explanation lies in context.
One cannot remove a part and still have two. Explanation lies in the coexistence of sight and touch, one and two, width and length.
There is no absolute “desire is beneficial, aversion is harmful.” Explanation lies in suitability.
Inability does not equal harm. Explanation lies in the definition of harm.
Diminution does not equal harm. Explanation lies in having a remainder.
Different categories cannot be compared. Explanation lies in differing standards of measurement.
Knowledge does not always come through the five senses. Explanation lies in time (duration).
Removing a part does not reduce the whole. Explanation lies in the original cause.
Friction necessarily produces heat. Explanation lies in rubbing.
A hypothesis must be absurd. Explanation lies in its premise being false.
Knowing why one does not know. Explanation lies in grasping through names.
The reality of a thing, the way one knows it, and the way one makes others know it are not necessarily the same. Explanation lies in the limitation of expression.
“Non-existence” does not necessarily depend on “existence.” Explanation lies in the concept itself.
Doubt arises from encountering, following, meeting, and missing.
Plucking a hair: the mind has no doubt. Explanation lies in clear existence or non-existence.
Combination and unity may separate again. Explanation lies in repulsion.
What is about to happen cannot be fixed, but this does not hinder the craftsman’s effort. Explanation lies in suitability.
Things form a single body. Explanation lies in coexistence and uniqueness.
Equality: absolute severance or not? Explanation lies in the standard of equality.
Words sometimes shift in meaning. Explanation lies in the duration of space and time.
The righteousness of Yao exists in the past but is discussed in the present; the times differ. Explanation lies in the era to which the righteousness belongs.
Two people stand facing a mirror; their reflections are inverted. Many appear as few. Explanation lies in a small field of view.
A dog is a hound. Yet “killing a dog” is not “killing a hound.” Explanation lies in connotation.
Mirror position: reflection is small and inverted, or large and upright. Explanation lies in being inside or outside the focal point.
Commanding: earnest or beautiful. Explanation lies in intent.
A spherical mirror produces one reflection. Explanation lies in reflection.
Hardness and whiteness are not perceived simultaneously. Explanation lies in sensory limitation.
The vastness of Chu: its depth is shallow. Explanation lies in containment.
Time and space do not contain hardness and whiteness. Explanation lies in dependence.
Calling a threshold a sphere is ignorant. Explanation lies in subjective imagination.
What is so and what is not yet so. Explanation lies in inference.
Intent may be unknown. Explanation lies in using coincidence to verify.
Shadows do not move. Explanation lies in continuous replacement.
One is less than two but more than five. Explanation lies in the decimal system.
Two shadows. Explanation lies in overlapping.
If not halved, it cannot be cut; then it is immovable. Explanation lies in the indivisible point (Duan).
Inverted shadow: at the focal point there is an intersection and shadow length. Explanation lies in the point.
It may not exist, but once it exists, it cannot be removed. Explanation lies in having existed.
Shadow facing the sun. Explanation lies in the sphere.
Upright but cannot be inverted. Explanation lies in the sphere.
Shadow size: Explanation lies in ground levelness and distance.
Advancing in space has no absolute nearness. Explanation lies in extension.
Heaven must be correct. Explanation lies in attaining position.
Movement follows duration. Explanation lies in sequence.
Firmness without bending. Explanation lies in endurance.
Things following the same law combine completely, like squares fitting together. Explanation lies in the square.
Contract and branch board. Explanation lies in thinness.
Wild examples cannot reveal differences. Explanation lies in incomparability.
“Cattle-and-horses” is not “cattle,” similar to the logic of “permissible.” Explanation lies in collective names.
Leaning things cannot be made upright. Explanation lies in shaving.
Following this and following this is the same as this and that. Explanation lies in difference.
Pushing must result in forward motion. Explanation lies in discarded material.
Singing and responding share the same concern. Explanation lies in function.
Buying has no absolute expensiveness. Explanation lies in price.
Hearing the unknown as if it were known results in knowing both. Explanation lies in being told.
Appropriate price leads to sale. Explanation lies in exhaustion.
Saying “all statements are absurd” is itself absurd. Explanation lies in the statement itself.
Fear without reason. Explanation lies in the inner mind.
Saying “only my designation is not a name” is impossible. Explanation lies in borrowing.
“Huo” (some) transcends specific names. Explanation lies in reality.
Infinity does not hinder universal love. Explanation lies in whether it is full.
Knowing and not-knowing are both sufficient; this is earnest. Explanation lies in having no proof.
Not knowing the number but knowing the totality. Explanation lies in the enlightened.
Saying “disputation has no winner” is necessarily inappropriate. Explanation lies in disputation.
Not knowing someone’s location does not hinder loving them. Explanation lies in a parent who has lost a child.
“No one ever yields” is impossible. Explanation lies in beginnings.
Benevolence and righteousness as inner and outer are both inner. Explanation lies in facial expressions matching the heart.
Regarding one thing, there is what is known and what is unknown. Explanation lies in existence.
Learning is beneficial. Explanation lies in critics.
Pointing at two makes escape impossible. Explanation lies in accumulation.
The validity of criticism does not depend on the number of people. Explanation lies in being refutable.
Knowing but unable to point out. Explanation lies in spring, a fugitive minister, dog/hound, and the noble.
Criticizing criticism is earnest. Explanation lies in not criticizing.
Knowing “dog” but claiming not to know “hound” is a mistake. Explanation lies in synonymous names.
Things have extremes and non-extremes. Explanation lies in being so.
Communicate intent before answering. Explanation lies in not knowing who is being addressed.
Taking the lower to seek the upper. Explanation lies in marshes.
Affirming affirmation is the same as agreeing. Explanation lies in non-universality.
Note
Yao:
A legendary sage king in ancient China. Mentioned here to discuss the temporal nature of moral concepts (how ancient righteousness is understood in the present).
Mohist Logic and Semantics:
This chapter is a dense collection of logical paradoxes, semantic analyses, and early scientific observations. It explores the relationship between names (words) and realities (objects), showing a sophisticated understanding of ambiguity, synonyms, and collective nouns (e.g., “dog” vs. “hound”, “cattle-and-horses”).
Optics and Geometry:
The text contains remarkable observations on optics, including the inversion of images in mirrors, the relationship between object position and image size (focal points), and the behavior of shadows. It also touches on the concept of the indivisible point (Duan), anticipating atomic theory.
Epistemology and Psychology:
The Mohists analyze cognitive processes, distinguishing between knowledge gained through the five senses, reasoning, and time. They also explore psychological states like doubt, fear, and the nature of hypotheses.
Ethics and Universal Love:
The text defends the Mohist doctrine of universal love against logical objections, arguing that infinity does not prevent loving everyone. It also redefines traditional Confucian virtues like benevolence and righteousness as inherently internal states.
The Five Elements:
The text notes that the Five Elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth) do not have a fixed cycle of overcoming each other, challenging the rigid cosmological determinism of the Yin-Yang school.
Hard-and-White (坚白):
A reference to the famous Sophist debate on whether the properties of a stone are inseparable. The Mohists argue that perception is limited, so hardness and whiteness may not be perceived simultaneously.
Reading Method:
Like Chapter 40, this text is highly condensed and requires cross-referencing with the Shuo (Explanations) chapters for full comprehension. The structure reflects an early attempt at an encyclopedic dictionary of philosophical and scientific terms.
止，类以行人。说在同。所存与者，于存与孰存？驷异说。推类之难。说在之大小。五行毋常胜。说在宜。物尽同名：二与斗，爱，食与招，白与视，丽与，夫与履。一，偏弃之，谓而固是也。说在因。不可偏去而二。说在见与俱、一与二、广与修。无“欲、恶之为益、损”也。说在宜。不能而不害。说在害。损而不害。说在余。异类不吡。说在量。知而不以五路。说在久。偏去莫加少。说在故。必热。说在顿。假，必悖。说在不然。知其所以不知。说在以名取。物之所以然，与所以知之，与所以使人知之，不必同。说在病。无，不必待有。说在所谓。疑。说在逢、循、遇、过。擢，虑不疑。说在有、无。合与一，或复否。说在拒。且然，不可正，而不用害工。说在宜欧。物，一体也。说在俱一、惟是。均之，绝、不。说在所均。字，或徙。说在长宇、久。尧之义也，生于今而处于古，而异时。说在所义。
二临鉴而立，景到。多而若少。说在寡区。狗，犬也。而杀狗非杀犬也，可。说在重。鉴位，景一小而易，一大则正。说在中之外内。使，殷、美。说在使。鉴团景一。不坚白。说在。荆之大，其沈，浅也。说在具。无久与宇坚白。说在因。以槛为抟，于“以为”，无知也。说在意。在诸其所然、未者然。说在于是推之。意未可知。说在可用过仵。景不徙。说在改为。一，少于二而多于五。说在建住。景二。说在重。非半弗斫，则不动。说在端。景到，在午有端与景长。说在端。可无也，有之而不可去。说在尝然。景迎日。说在抟。正而不可担，说在抟。景之小、大。说在地正、远近。宇进无近。说在敷。天，而必正。说在得。行循以久。说在先后。贞而不挠。说在胜。一法者之相与也尽，若方之相合也。说在方。契与枝板。说在薄。狂举，不可以知异。说在有不可。牛马之非牛，与可之同。说在兼。倚者不可正。说在剃。循此循此，与彼此同。说在异。推之必往。说在废材。唱和同患。说在功。买无贵。说在仮其贾。闻所不知若所知，则两知之。说在告。贾宜则售。说在尽。以言为尽悖，悖。说在其言。无说而惧。说在弗心。唯吾谓非名也，则不可。说在仮。或，过名也。说在实。无穷不害兼。说在盈否知。知之、否之足用也，谆。说在无以也。不知其数而知其尽也。说在明者。谓辩无胜，必不当。说在辩。不知其所处，不害爱之。说在丧子者。
无不让也，不可。说在始。
仁、义之为内、外也，内。说在仵颜。
于一，有知焉，有不知焉。说在存。
学之，益也。说在诽者。
有指于二，而不可逃。说在以二絫。
诽之可否，不以众寡。说在可非。
所知而弗能指。说在春也、逃臣、狗犬、贵者。
非诽者谆。说在弗非。
知狗，而自谓不知犬，过也。说在重。
物甚不甚。说在若是。
通意后对。说在不知其谁谓也。
取下以求上也。说在泽。
是是与是同。说在不州。
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