King Wu of Qin, still haunted by Zhang Yi’s earlier counsel to seize Han state. In 307 BCE, he launched a bold campaign. His general Gan Mao captured Han’s Yiyang city (in modern Henan), opening the path to the heart of ancient China.
Qin Wu’s fatal ambition
After that, King Wu of Qin marched on Chengzhou – the seat of the Zhou royal court. There, King Wu ignored protocol and rushed to see the Nine Tripods – sacred bronze vessels cast by Yu the Great, each representing one of the Nine Provinces of China. Passed from Xia to Shang to Zhou, they symbolized the Mandate of Heaven.
Spotting the tripod inscribed “Yongzhou” – the region of Qin – he declared:
“This is ours! I’ll carry it back to Xianyang!”
Boasting immense strength, he lifted the massive cauldron – weighing over a thousand jin – but his arms gave way. The tripod crashed down, shattering his leg. He died that night.
With no heir, the Qin court installed his cousin as King Zhaoxiang of Qin (also known as King Zhao), who would reign for over fifty years and become the architect of Qin’s final conquests.
Zhang Yi broke Chu
Before King Wu’s death, Chu and Qi – the two greatest powers east of Qin – had formed a strategic alliance to contain Qin’s expansion. But Zhang Yi, master of deception, had already undone it.
He traveled to Chu, promising 600 li of Shangyu land if King Huai of Chu severed ties with Qi. Blinded by greed, King Huai agreed – only to discover the “land” was a lie: Zhang Yi claimed he’d offered only six li of his personal estate.
The betrayal triggered disaster:
- Qi, enraged, allied with Qin.
- Han and Wei joined the assault.
- Chu suffered catastrophic defeats, losing Hanzhong and tens of thousands of soldiers.
From then on, Chu never fully recovered.
False friendship: Qin’s narriage trap
When King Zhaoxiang ascended the throne, he continued the policy of “befriend the distant, attack the near”. To neutralize Chu, he proposed royal intermarriage and promised to return Shangyong (modern Zhuxi, Hubei) as a goodwill gesture.
Desperate after being abandoned by Qi and attacked by coalition forces, King Huai accepted. He even sent his crown prince, Prince Heng, to Qin as a hostage in exchange for military aid – which Qin duly provided, forcing Qi, Han, and Wei to retreat.
But peace was fleeting.
Escalation and Escape
Tensions flared when Prince Heng, humiliated in Qin, fled back to Chu without permission. Qin used this as pretext to invade again, seizing cities and slaughtering tens of thousands.
Terrified, King Huai broke with Qin, rejoining the Vertical Alliance (Hezong), and sent Prince Heng as a hostage to Qi instead.
Now, Chu and Qi were united once more – a direct threat to Qin’s dominance.
The Invitation to Perdition
In 299 BCE, King Zhaoxiang sent a courteous letter to King Huai:
“Meet me at Wuguan (in modern Danfeng, Shaanxi). Let us swear eternal friendship before Heaven.”
King Huai hesitated. He asked his ministers:
“Go, and I may be trapped. Refuse, and Qin will wage war. What should I do?”
Qu Yuan, recently returned from Qi, warned:
“Qin is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. Go, and you walk into a cage.”
But Jin Shang, ever loyal to Qin’s gold, insisted:
“We are kin now – your daughter married Qin’s crown prince; their princess wed your son Gongzi Lan. Reject this offer, and we invite ruin.”
Flattered by family ties, King Huai journeyed to Wuguan.
Captivity and Collapse
As Qu Yuan predicted, King Zhaoxiang seized him upon arrival.
“You promised Qianzhong long ago,” he said. “Send the land, and you go free.”
King Huai was imprisoned in Xianyang.
Back in Chu, the court acted swiftly. They recalled Prince Heng from Qi and crowned him King Qingxiang of Chu, declaring:
“We have a new king. No land will be ceded.”
Enraged, Qin dispatched General Bai Qi and Meng Ao with 100,000 troops through Wuguan. In a brutal campaign, Chu lost 50,000 men and sixteen cities.
In his cell, King Huai heard the news – and wept in secret.
He died in captivity in 296 BCE, a broken monarch far from home.
Legacy of a Foolish King
- For Qin, marriage, oaths, and treaties were tools – not promises.
- The Qi-Chu alliance was shattered by false land offers.
- Royal marriages kept Chu passive while Qin devoured Han, Zhao, and Wei.
Sima Qian, the Grand Historian, summed it up in the Records of the Grand Historian:
“King Huai of Chu was greedy and trusted Zhang Yi. He severed ties with Qi, sent envoys to Qin for land, and lost both territory and people.”
His tragedy became a timeless warning: in the game of power, sentiment is weakness – and trust, fatal.
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