Much like Sun Wukong in Journey to the West, Xiang Yu was born arrogant, refused to be ordinary, submitted only to the strongest, and possessed a natural kingly aura. As a descendant of Chu nobility, he was endowed with innate grace. From an early age, he disdained trivial skills and insisted on learning the art of defeating ten thousand men. When young, upon seeing the First Emperor of Qin, he declared: “I shall take his place.”
The Northern and Southern Frontiers
Though the iron mace at Bolangsha failed to deter Qin Shi Huang, he continued his imperial tours undeterred. While the heartland remained relatively stable, threats loomed on the frontiers. In 215 BCE, the formidable Xiongnu tribes from the north repeatedly raided the Central Plains, capturing men and women as slaves and plundering the fertile Hetao region. In response, Qin Shi Huang appointed General Meng Tian to lead a 300,000-strong army against them. The Xiongnu – nomadic pastoralists with less advanced economies and cultures – fled before the disciplined Qin forces. Meng Tian reclaimed Hetao and established forty-four new counties, relocating convicts from the interior to settle and cultivate the land.
To secure the northern border permanently, Qin Shi Huang ordered the connection of the old walls built by the former states of Qin, Zhao, and Yan into a single, continuous fortification – the Great Wall. Stretching over ten thousand li from Lintao (in modern Gansu) in the west to Liaodong in the east, this colossal project mobilized hundreds of thousands of laborers alongside the standing army. Meanwhile, Crown Prince Fusu, who had openly opposed the emperor’s brutal “burning of books and burying of scholars,” was banished to the northern frontier to supervise Meng Tian’s troops – a move that would later prove fateful.
Conquest and Colonization of the South
While the north was being fortified, unrest erupted in the south. The Baiyue tribes of Lingnan (modern Guangdong and Guangxi) – then known as Nanyue – launched raids into Han territories. To counter this, Qin Shi Huang granted amnesty to all convicts, conscripting them as soldiers. He also drafted servants, merchants, and commoners into service. A combined force of about 200,000 marched south, subdued the local tribes, and established administrative commanderies. To ensure long-term control, 500,000 impoverished settlers from the Central Plains were relocated to Lingnan to farm and develop the region.
To support logistics, Qin engineers constructed the Lingqu Canal, linking the Xiang and Gui rivers. This waterway enabled grain and supplies from the Yangtze basin to be shipped directly south. Over time, these settlers introduced advanced farming tools, irrigation techniques, and Han culture, laying the foundation for Lingnan’s integration into the Chinese world.
A Defiant Gaze in Wu
In 210 BCE, Qin Shi Huang embarked on another grand tour – this time to the southeast. Accompanied by Chancellor Li Si, his youngest son Huhai, and the eunuch Zhao Gao (Master of the Imperial Chariots), the procession crossed the Yangtze and entered Wu (modern Suzhou), capital of Kuaiji Commandery. Crowds lined the streets to glimpse the emperor who had unified China. Dressed in black – the Qin dynastic color – and flanked by armored guards bearing halberds and spears, the imperial convoy resembled a great black dragon crawling across the land. Qin Shi Huang even drew back his carriage curtains to let the people see him clearly.
Amid the awestruck throng, a young man in his twenties pushed forward – tall, broad-shouldered, with piercing eyes. Behind him stood an older man, urgently trying to hold him back. As the emperor passed, the youth muttered audaciously, “He’s nothing special! Anyone can replace him!” His uncle, recognizing the danger, clamped a hand over his mouth and dragged him away through the crowd.
That bold youth was none other than Xiang Yu, scion of the once-mighty Chu general Xiang Yan. After Qin conquered Chu in 223 BCE, Xiang Yan died in battle, and the family fell from power. Raised by his uncle Xiang Liang in Xiapi (Jiangsu), Xiang Yu showed little interest in classical studies or swordsmanship. When pressed, he declared: “What use is literacy beyond signing one’s name? And swordplay only defeats one man. I want to learn how to defeat ten thousand – learn to oppose ten thousand enemies!”
Impressed by his ambition, Xiang Liang began teaching him military strategy from ancestral texts. But Xiang Yu grasped only the outlines before losing interest again. Later, after killing a local rival in a fit of rage, Xiang Liang fled with his nephew to Wu, where they lived under assumed names. There, Xiang Liang earned respect as a leader among local elites, often managing community affairs and secretly instructing youths in warfare. Xiang Yu, famed for his strength – said to lift a thousand-jin bronze cauldron – became a local legend. Yet his reckless outburst during the emperor’s visit forced Xiang Liang to confine him indoors until news came that Qin Shi Huang had departed.
The Emperor’s Death and a Coup in Secret
Unbeknownst to Xiang Yu, Qin Shi Huang fell gravely ill soon after leaving Wu. By the time the entourage reached Shaqiu (in modern Hebei), the emperor was dying. He summoned Li Si and Zhao Gao and instructed: “Send word to Fusu – return to Xianyang at once. If I do not recover, he shall preside over my funeral.”
Li Si and Zhao Gao drafted the edict, showed it to the fading emperor, sealed it, and prepared to dispatch it. But before a messenger could be sent, Qin Shi Huang died.
Fearing chaos if the death became known during the 1,600-li journey back to the capital, Li Si proposed secrecy. The emperor’s body was kept in the carriage, curtains drawn, meals delivered as usual. Officials continued daily audiences outside the vehicle, unaware their sovereign was already dead.
Zhao Gao, however, had other plans. Holding the sealed letter to Fusu, he conspired with Huhai – his protégé – to usurp the throne. Knowing Fusu would elevate Meng Tian and sideline him, Zhao Gao convinced the ambitious but weak-willed Huhai to seize power. They then coerced Li Si – motivated by fear and self-preservation – into joining the plot.
Together, the trio forged a new imperial will: Huhai was named heir; Fusu and Meng Tian were accused of disloyalty and ordered to commit suicide. Messengers carried the false decree south. Both Fusu and Meng Tian, bound by filial piety and duty, obeyed without question.
To mask the stench of the decomposing corpse in the summer heat, Zhao Gao ordered carts of pungent salted fish loaded onto every official vehicle. The overpowering odor along the route disguised the true source – allowing the deception to hold until they reached Xianyang.
Only after Fusu and Meng Tian were dead did the court publicly announce Qin Shi Huang’s death. Huhai ascended as the Second Emperor (Qin Er Shi), with Zhao Gao wielding de facto power. Under their rule, veteran ministers were purged, corvee labor intensified, taxes soared, and repression deepened – setting the stage for the empire’s rapid collapse.
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