In 9 CE, Wang Mang, a former minister of the Han dynasty, usurped the throne and declared the establishment of the “Xin” dynasty. Obsessed with antiquity, he sought to restore the institutions of the ancient Zhou dynasty, believing that older systems were inherently superior to those of the Qin and Han. Rather than advancing society through progressive reforms, Wang Mang insisted on turning back the clock – an approach that ignored both historical trends and the people’s needs. His retrogressive policies would soon sow the seeds of chaos.
Failed Land Reforms and Economic Collapse
One of Wang Mang’s most controversial measures was the nationalization of all farmland under the name “Royal Fields” (Wang Tian), banning private ownership and trade. He ordered wealthy landowners to redistribute excess land to the landless. However, this policy backfired spectacularly. While it angered the aristocracy and gentry, it also failed to benefit peasants, who lacked tools, livestock, and capital to cultivate the newly assigned lands effectively. Agricultural output plummeted. Forced to reverse course, Wang Mang rescinded the ban on land sales – admitting his own failure and severely damaging his credibility. Discontent spread as the economy faltered and unrest grew.
War, Conscription, and Popular Uprising
To assert the might of his new regime, Wang Mang conscripted 300,000 men – ostensibly volunteers but in reality press-ganged laborers – for a disastrous campaign against the Xiongnu. To fund this war, he imposed crushing levies: grain, livestock, and labor. Delays or resistance were punished with execution or enslavement. In regions like Wuyuan (western Inner Mongolia) and Dai Commandery (northern Shanxi/Hebei), border communities bore the brunt of these demands. Desperate and starving, they rose in rebellion – the first sparks of a nationwide conflagration.
The Birth of the Lulin Heroes
In 17 CE, famine struck Jing Province (Jingzhou, central-southern Hubei). With wild vegetables exhausted, crowds rushed to dig for water chestnuts outside the city. Fights broke out over patches of land until two respected locals – Wang Kuang and Wang Feng from Xinzhi – stepped in to mediate. Standing on a hillock, Wang Kuang rallied the crowd: “Fighting over scraps won’t feed us tomorrow! The real enemy is the corrupt officials who stole our grain!” His words ignited a movement. Hundreds pledged allegiance, forming a rebel band that seized Mount Lulin (in modern Dangyang, Hubei). They raided granaries, fought local tyrants, and redistributed wealth – earning the name “Lulin Heroes.”
Alliances and Expansion
The Lulin rebels quickly gained fame. Other rebel leaders – Zhang Ba of Nan Commandery and Yang Mu of Jiangxia – joined forces with them, swelling their ranks to tens of thousands. Their coordinated actions created a formidable anti-government front across southern China. News of the uprising reached Chang’an, alarming Wang Mang.
A Voice of Reason Silenced
At court, sycophantic ministers urged swift military suppression. But General Gongsun Lu warned: “The people rebel because of corrupt officials, not disloyalty. Punish the guilty, recall the armies from the frontier, and seek peace with the Xiongnu. The true threat lies within – not beyond the Great Wall.” Enraged by this dissent, Wang Mang expelled Gongsun Lu and ordered a full-scale assault on the Lulin forces.
Victory at the Battlefield
The governor of Jing Province dispatched 20,000 troops against the rebels. In their first major engagement, the Lulin fighters – though poorly armed – fought with desperate courage. The imperial army, accustomed to bullying civilians, crumbled under fierce resistance. Thousands were killed or fled, abandoning weapons and supplies. Emboldened, Wang Kuang and Wang Feng captured the cities of Jingling and Anlu, freeing prisoners and distributing grain. Their ranks swelled to over 50,000.
Plague and Strategic Retreat
In 22 CE, disaster struck: a deadly epidemic swept through Lulin, killing nearly half their forces in two months. Forced to disperse, the rebels split into three columns: the “Xinshi Army” in Nanyang (southern Henan), the “Xiajiang Army” in Nan Commandery, and the “Pinglin Army” near Suizhou. Though scattered, they remained united under the Lulin banner.
A Prince Among Rebels
Among the Pinglin rebels was Liu Xuan – a descendant of the Han imperial clan who had lived in hiding since Wang Mang’s coup. Seeing the uprising as his chance to restore the Han, he joined the Pinglin forces and rose to leadership. His presence lent legitimacy to the rebellion, transforming it from a peasant revolt into a restorationist movement.
Empire in Flames
By this time, uprisings had erupted across the east, northwest, and north. Wang Mang, isolated in his palace, could no longer contain the tide. The Lulin Heroes – once a band of starving foragers – had become the vanguard of a revolution that would ultimately topple the Xin dynasty and pave the way for the restoration of the Han.
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