The Spark of Rebellion
Emperor Ming Sizong (Chongzhen) ascended the throne with a desire to revitalize the Ming Dynasty, showing more diligence than his predecessor, Emperor Ming Xizong. However, his arrogance, capriciousness, heavy taxation, and cruelty toward officials sowed the seeds of disaster. In 1628, a catastrophic combination of floods, droughts, and locusts struck northwest China. In northern Shaanxi, crops failed completely, leading to famine so severe that cannibalism occurred. Instead of providing relief, the government increased taxes to fund the war in the northeast, pushing the peasantry to the brink.
Driven to desperation, the people revolted. A whirlwind of uprisings swept across the land. Gao Yingxiang, known as the “Dashing King” (Chuang Wang), became a primary leader, commanding thirteen families and seventy-two camps of rebels. They moved from Shaanxi into Henan, Sichuan, and Hubei, seizing grain and killing officials. Among his followers was Li Zicheng, a native of Mizhi who had worked as a shepherd and stable hand. After being humiliated by a usurer and imprisoned for debt, Li killed his creditor and joined the rebellion. Another key figure was Zhang Xianzhong from Yan’an, a former soldier who rebelled against oppression and styled himself the “Eight Great Kings.”
The Strategy of Division and the Desecration of Fengyang
Alarmed by the spreading unrest, the Emperor ordered a massive crackdown involving troops from five provinces. Trapped in Henan, the rebel leaders convened a conference in Xingyang. While some advocated fleeing north, Li Zicheng argued for a bold offensive strategy. He proposed dividing their forces to attack in different directions, confusing the imperial army. This strategy, known as “dividing the army to determine the objective,” was adopted.
Gao Yingxiang, Zhang Xianzhong, and Li Zicheng led an eastern breakout, successfully breaching the blockade and entering Anhui. They targeted Fengyang, the ancestral home of the Zhu imperial clan. Despite the efforts of Governor Yang Yipeng, the rebels sacked the city, looted grain, and desecrated the imperial tombs, even destroying the Huangjue Temple where the founding emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang, had once been a monk. Upon hearing this news, Emperor Sizong donned mourning clothes, wept at the Imperial Ancestral Temple, and executed Yang Yipeng before ordering a relentless pursuit of the perpetrators.
The Fall of the First Dashing King
The rebels eventually returned to Shaanxi, aiming for Xi’an. The court deployed Governor Hong Chengchou and Inspector Sun Chuanting to suppress them. Although the rebels were mobile, they suffered a major blow when Gao Yingxiang was ambushed near Xi’an and captured. He was transported to Beijing and executed by lingchi (slow slicing). Following his death, the rebels elected Li Zicheng as the new “Dashing King.” Zhang Xianzhong, unwilling to serve as a subordinate, broke away to operate independently in the southwest.
In a bid to crush the rebellion, Minister of War Yang Sichang proposed the “Four Fronts, Six Corners, Ten-Faced Net” strategy. This plan designated four main battlefields and six auxiliary ones, requiring local officials to take personal charge of suppression efforts. With additional funding and troops authorized by the Emperor, the imperial forces tightened the noose. Many rebel groups disintegrated or surrendered. Zhang Xianzhong accepted a pardon in Gucheng, retaining command of his troops, while Li Zicheng, refusing to submit, retreated into the Shangluo mountains with only eighteen loyal followers. Rumors spread that he had died, leading Yang Sichang to believe the rebellion was quelled.
Resurgence and the Slogan of Relief
A year later, Zhang Xianzhong abruptly rebelled again, catching the government off guard. Meanwhile, Li Zicheng emerged from hiding, realizing that his previous failures stemmed from a lack of a base and educated advisors. Rejoining Zhang briefly before moving to Henan, Li capitalized on the region’s devastation. He attracted scholars like Niu Jinxing, Song Xiance, Gu Jun’en, and Li Yan. Li Yan advised him to win popular support through land redistribution and tax exemption (“Equal Fields and Exemption from Grain Tax”) and strict military discipline.
These slogans – “When the Dashing King comes, there will be no grain tax” – resonated deeply with the starving populace. Swelling with recruits, Li’s army captured Luoyang. They executed the Prince of Fu, Zhu Changxun, a man notorious for his immense wealth and obesity, distributing his property to the poor.
The Collapse of the Imperial Net
Zhang Xianzhong also achieved significant victories. Evading Yang Sichang’s pursuit, he doubled back to capture Xiangyang by disguising his troops as imperial soldiers. There, he executed the Prince of Xiang, Zhu Yiming, famously stating that he needed the Prince’s head to force Yang Sichang to pay with his life. Upon learning that both the Princes of Fu and Xiang had been killed, effectively shattering his strategic net, Yang Sichang committed suicide by starvation. The Ming lost one of its most capable commanders.
Zhang continued his rampage, capturing Wuchang and executing the Prince of Chu, Zhu Huakui, who had refused to release his hoarded wealth to aid the city’s defense. In the spring of 1643, Zhang proclaimed himself the “Great West King” in Wuchang, establishing a bureaucratic structure similar to the Ming’s.
The Road to Beijing
Li Zicheng, now styling himself the “New Shun King,” held a council to decide their next move. While some advocated for a direct strike on Beijing or a move to Nanjing, advisor Gu Jun’en suggested securing the base in Guanzhong (Xi’an) first to ensure a fallback position. Li agreed. His forces besieged Tong Pass, where Governor Sun Chuanting, who had previously defeated Gao Yingxiang, was killed.
In early 1644, Li Zicheng established the “Great Shun” state in Xi’an. With his power consolidated, he prepared for the final march on Beijing. Unbeknownst to him, another claimant was also racing for the capital, and the reign of Emperor Ming Sizong was drawing to a tragic close.
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