Dong Zhuo’s arrogance, arbitrariness and cruelty ignited widespread fury across the empire. First, he deposed Emperor Shao of Han (Liu Bian), then had him murdered—along with his mother, Empress He and his wife. During the enthronement of the new emperor, Liu Xie, he executed any minister who dared to oppose him.
Since ancient times, deposing and installing emperors has been one of the most serious political acts—reserved only for extreme circumstances. Though there were rare precedents of success, such as Yi Yin exiling Emperor Tai Jia to Tong Palace, or Huo Guang deposing the Prince of Changyi, these were exceptional cases. Most attempts ended in failure.
Dong Zhuo sought to strengthen his authority through this act of regicide and usurpation, but the result was the opposite. He angered loyal ministers and threatened the ambitions of rising warlords. Liu Bian had enjoyed the support of many court officials, yet Dong Zhuo unilaterally deposed him without consultation and installed Liu Xie as emperor. In doing so, he placed himself in direct opposition to the entire scholar-official class.
A nation awaits a Hero
Dong Zhuo’s brutality bred deep resentment among both the people and the bureaucracy. Yet, under his iron-fisted rule, all could only seethe in silence. The entire nation was waiting for a heroic figure to raise the banner of resistance.
Thus, in Chapter 5 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, we read how Cao Cao issued a forged imperial edict to unite the regional lords in a coalition against Dong Zhuo.
“When Yuan Shao received Cao Cao’s forged edict, he gathered his civil and military officers and led an army of 30,000 from Bohai to join Cao Cao in alliance. Cao Cao also sent out proclamations to all the vassals.”
This moment marks the beginning of the grand anti-Dong Zhuo campaign—a pivotal turning point in the novel.
A quick review of Cao Cao’s attempted assassination of Dong Zhuo
Those who have read Romance of the Three Kingdoms are likely deeply impressed by the scene of “Cao Cao assassinates Dong Zhuo.” In the story, Cao Cao carries the Seven-Jewel Sword given by Wang Yun, enters Dong Zhuo’s mansion under the pretense of presenting it as a gift, and draws the blade as Dong Zhuo naps—only to flee in panic when Lü Bu suddenly returns.
This narrative casts Cao Cao as a hero willing to confront the tyrant, but in historical reality, Cao Cao never attempted to assassinate Dong Zhuo.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong elevated Cao Cao’s image by portraying him as the would-be assassin of Dong Zhuo—a fictional embellishment to enhance his heroic stature at the beginning of his rise.
Who actually forged the imperial edict?
For the same narrative purpose—to glorify Cao Cao—the author again altered history. In reality, Cao Cao was not the first to issue a forged edict calling for the coalition against Dong Zhuo.
The true initiator was Qiao Mao, the governor of Dongjun.
In 190 AD, Qiao Mao forged an official letter in the name of the Three Excellencies (the highest-ranking officials in the Han central government). This letter accused Dong Zhuo of treason and called upon the regional lords to rise in arms.
This forged document served the same function as an imperial edict, effectively mobilizing local forces under the banner of imperial legitimacy.
Eventually, more than a dozen regional lords gathered, and Yuan Shao was elected as the coalition leader, marching toward Luoyang to confront Dong Zhuo.
Cao Cao: The true believer in a sea of self-Interest
Although Cao Cao was not the first to issue the call, he was one of the few who genuinely sought to overthrow Dong Zhuo and restore the Han dynasty.
In contrast, most of the coalition leaders were driven by personal ambition. They remained hesitant, refused to advance, and focused solely on preserving their own power.
Among the dozen or so allied forces, only a handful—Bao Xin, Cao Cao, Wei Zi, and Sun Jian—fought with true conviction, leading their troops into battle without regard for personal gain.
Some commanders or vassals not only refused to fight but even turned on each other. The breakdown of the coalition was directly triggered by Liu Dai’s assassination of Qiao Mao.
The tragic fate of Qiao Mao: Betrayed by his own alliance
Liu Dai was the imperial inspector of Yan Province(Yanzhou); Qiao Mao was the governor of Dongjun. Although Dongjun fell under Yanzhou’s jurisdiction, Liu Dai, as an inspector (a supervisory role akin to a censor), had no direct authority over Qiao Mao’s military forces.
How could Liu Dai expand his territory? He found a pretext: claiming his army was short on grain, he asked Qiao Mao for supplies. Qiao Mao replied:
“I barely have enough for myself—how can I lend you any?”
When Liu Dai heard this refusal, he seized the opportunity. Under the cover of night, he launched a surprise attack on Qiao Mao, killed him, and absorbed his troops and resources.
Think of it: Qiao Mao, the very man who first forged the call to arms and ignited the anti-Dong Zhuo rebellion, was murdered by a fellow member of the coalition he helped create. What kind of justice is this?
Conclusion: Myth vs. History
The story of the anti-Dong Zhuo coalition is a powerful blend of historical truth and literary fiction. While Romance of the Three Kingdoms elevates Cao Cao as the heroic initiator—both in assassination and in rebellion—the reality is more complex and tragic.
Qiao Mao, though forgotten in popular memory, was the true catalyst. His forged letter set the rebellion in motion, yet he was repaid with betrayal and death. His fate reflects the chaos and moral decay of the late Han era—a time when loyalty was punished, and ambition ruled all.
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