The Ambitious Warlord of Longyou
Wei Xiao, a respected scholar from Chengji (northwest of modern Qin’an, Gansu), rose to prominence during the anti-Wang Mang uprisings. Appointed by local elites, he seized control of Tianshui and built a powerful regional base. Though he briefly submitted to Liu Xuan (the Gengshi Emperor), he later joined the failed plot to kidnap him. After its exposure, Wei Xiao fled back to Tianshui, declared himself Grand General, and harbored imperial ambitions of his own.
By 28 CE, he sought alliances to bolster his position – first sending his trusted general Ma Yuan as envoy to Gongsun Shu, the self-proclaimed emperor in Shu (Sichuan).
Ma Yuan’s Test of Two Rulers
Ma Yuan, a man of grand vision from Maoling (northeast of Xingping, Shaanxi), had joined Wei Xiao out of necessity but longed for a true sovereign. In Chengdu, Gongsun Shu received him with pomp: ranks of officials, ceremonial robes, and an immediate offer to appoint him Grand General – all while seated arrogantly, awaiting Ma Yuan’s obeisance.
Ma Yuan politely declined. Returning to Wei Xiao, he scoffed, “Gongsun Shu is like a frog at the bottom of a well – vain and narrow-minded. We should look eastward instead.”
Convinced, Wei Xiao dispatched Ma Yuan to Luoyang to meet Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu).
There, Guangwu greeted Ma Yuan in plain clothes, without guards, saying warmly, “You’ve traveled between two emperors – I feel almost ashamed.”
Ma Yuan replied, “In chaotic times, not only do rulers choose ministers, but ministers also choose rulers.”
He contrasted Gongsun Shu’s rigid ceremony with Guangwu’s open trust: “You received me like an old friend – how did you know I wasn’t an assassin?”
Guangwu laughed: “You’re no assassin – you’re a persuader.”
Deeply impressed, Ma Yuan resolved to urge Wei Xiao to submit. Guangwu sent Lai Xi to escort Ma Yuan back – a gesture of goodwill.
Scholars Choose Sides
When Lai Xi arrived, Wei Xiao hosted him courteously – but rejected his plea to visit Luoyang and accept a Han title. Sensing hesitation, Lai Xi departed.
Wei Xiao then consulted Ban Biao, the renowned scholar (and father of historian Ban Gu), using historical analogies about dynastic change to justify his own imperial claim. Ban Biao saw through the ruse. Knowing Wei Xiao lacked the talent to rival Guangwu, he advised submission. When Wei Xiao refused, Ban Biao resigned and left.
His departure caught the attention of Dou Rong, governor of Hexi (western Gansu), who had long been undecided. Inviting Ban Biao to his court, Dou Rong sought counsel – and was persuaded to pledge loyalty to Guangwu. He sent a memorial to Luoyang.
Guangwu immediately appointed him Governor of Liangzhou and wrote a personal letter:
“With Gongsun Shu in Yizhou and Wei Xiao in Tianshui, your allegiance tips the balance. Though lands may be divided, the people of China cannot be split. Your choice serves both state and people – I am deeply grateful.”
With Hexi secured, Guangwu turned again to Wei Xiao.
Diplomacy Fails, War Begins
Guangwu sent Lai Xi once more, offering joint campaign against Shu and promising territorial rewards. Wei Xiao refused, fearing that once Gongsun Shu fell, he would be next. He claimed preoccupation with Xiongnu threats – but to avoid provoking Guangwu, he sent his son as hostage to Luoyang, along with Ma Yuan’s entire family.
In 30 CE, Guangwu issued a final ultimatum to both Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu: submit or face war. Gongsun Shu responded by attacking Nan Commandery. To test Wei Xiao’s loyalty, Guangwu invited him to join the invasion of Shu.
Wei Xiao evaded: “Let Gongsun Shu exhaust himself first.”
Guangwu saw through the deceit. He marched to Chang’an, launched a feint toward Chengdu – and watched as Wei Xiao, unable to resist, seized cities at the foot of Long Mountain and invaded Guanzhong.
He met General Feng Yi, who crushed his forces in a decisive battle.
The Fracturing of Loyalty
As Wei Xiao faltered, Ma Yuan – now in Luoyang – sent a stern letter condemning his duplicity and urging surrender. Enraged, Wei Xiao prepared for renewed war. But Ma Yuan led 5,000 cavalry into Wei Xiao’s territory, persuading officers to defect. Morale collapsed.
Wei Xiao sued for peace. Guangwu, no longer patient, replied coldly:
“I’m tired of empty words. Act as you will – sincerely or falsely.”
Knowing he was exposed, Wei Xiao defected to Gongsun Shu, who enfeoffed him as a king and sent reinforcements.
The Fall of Long and the Death of a Warlord
In 32 CE, Emperor Guangwu personally led a campaign against Wei Xiao. Dou Rong joined with tens of thousands of Hexi troops. The combined Han army overwhelmed Wei Xiao’s forces. He fled to Xicheng (south of Tianshui); Gongsun Shu’s relief army retreated to Shanggui (southwest of Tianshui).
Guangwu offered clemency: surrender, and be reunited with your son. Wei Xiao refused. In response, Guangwu executed the hostage son and left Feng Yi to besiege the two cities.
On his return journey to Luoyang, Guangwu wrote to his generals:
“Once Xicheng and Shanggui fall, march south to conquer Shu. My flaw? Like all men, I’m never satisfied – ‘Having conquered Long, I covet Shu’). Each campaign grays my hair. But without this drive, how can the empire be unified?”
Wei Xiao, trapped and despondent, died of illness in 33 CE. His son Wei Chun took command but surrendered in 34 CE. Tragically, Feng Yi – the ‘General Under the Tree’ – died in camp before seeing final victory. Guangwu mourned him publicly, praising his “path-clearing, thorn-cutting” service to the restored Han.
The Unification Complete
With Longyou pacified, Guangwu turned fully on Shu. In 36 CE, Han forces stormed Chengdu. Gongsun Shu, mortally wounded, died; his generals surrendered the city.
Thus, Guangwu achieved what he had dreamed: he gained Long, then Shu – and with them, the whole realm.
At the grand victory banquet, he enfeoffed his loyalists. Deng Yu, though not a strategist like Zhang Liang, had consistently urged discipline, unity, and popular support – he was named Marquis of Gaomi, the highest honor. Others received ranks according to merit; heirs inherited titles of the fallen. Only Kou Xun – the “Modern Xiao He” – was missing, having died the year before.
After two decades of chaos, China was reunified. With all rivals vanquished, Emperor Guangwu now turned his full attention to governing wisely, restoring order, and rebuilding a strong, peaceful Han dynasty.
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