After leveraging Cao Cao’s forces to capture Xuzhou and eliminate Lü Bu, Cao Cao did not return Xuzhou to Liu Bei. Instead, he appointed his trusted subordinate Che Zhou as the new Governer of Xuzhou and brought Liu Bei to Xuchang. Ostensibly, this was to present him at court for rewards, but in reality, it was to place him under effective “house arrest,” attempting first to co-opt him, and failing that, to eliminate him.
Liu Bei’s flight from Cao Cao
Later, after joining the secret Girdle Edict alliance, Liu Bei grew fearful of discovery by Cao Cao. Seizing the opportunity to intercept Yuan Shu, Liu Bei managed to flee from Cao Cao’s grasp. Upon reaching Xuzhou, he first defeated Yuan Shu, successfully thwarting his plan to head north and join forces with Yuan Shao. Subsequently, Liu Bei killed Che Zhou, the Xuzhou Inspector appointed by Cao Cao, once again took control of Xuzhou, and openly declared his opposition to Cao Cao.
A delegated expedition
Given the complex strategic landscape, Cao Cao initially did not lead a personal expedition. Instead, he dispatched Liu Dai and Wang Zhong with an army of 50,000 soldiers to attack Liu Bei in Xuzhou.
Cao Cao named General Liu Dai to lead the forward army and General Wang Zhong to lead the rear army, a force numbering fifty thousand. They marched east and attacked Xuande in Xuzhou. Cao Cao assigned them the colors of the prime minister to create the impression that he personally was in command. Liu Dai had been imperial inspector of Yanzhou when Cao Cao seized the province and, after submitting to Cao, was appointed auxiliary commander. Thus Liu Dai, joined by Wang Zhong, came to receive the assignment.
— Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 22
At this time (199 AD), when Liu Bei recaptured Xuzhou, Cao Cao’s primary strategic adversary was not Liu Bei, but Yuan Shao in the north. Yuan Shao had recently eliminated Gongsun Zan and fully controlled the four provinces of Ji, Qing, You, and Bing. He was massing his forces, preparing to march south and attack Xuchang, Cao Cao’s political heartland. The stage was set for the decisive Battle of Guandu.
Yuan Shao’s army vastly outnumbered Cao Cao’s. Cao Cao had to concentrate his main forces and key strategists (like Guo Jia, Xun Yu, and Xun You) along the Guandu front to construct defenses and prepare supplies. He dared not easily divert his main army to Xuzhou. If Cao Cao had personally campaigned against Xuzhou, Yuan Shao would likely have seized the opportunity to strike south. With Xuchang vulnerable, Cao Cao would have faced a desperate two-front war, a risk he absolutely could not afford.
Assessing Liu Bei’s Vulnerability in Xuzhou
Although Liu Bei had retaken Xuzhou, his hold was precarious. His forces were limited, he lacked a stable logistical base, and he had not formed a substantive alliance with Yuan Shao. Despite sending envoys to Yuan Shao, Yuan Shao, prone to deliberation but slow decision-making, had not committed to coordinated action. In Cao Cao’s view, Liu Bei was isolated and weak, not warranting a personal expedition by the main force.
Xuzhou had changed hands multiple times among Lü Bu, Cao Cao, and Liu Bei, leaving its populace with little loyalty to any incoming power. Cao Cao’s prior massacres in Xuzhou had severely weakened its manpower and economy. Furthermore, Cao Cao likely believed that his appointed Inspector, Che Zhou, had consolidated control long enough, and that after Che Zhou’s death, the military and civilians of Xuzhou might harbor reservations and not fully support Liu Bei. Therefore, dispatching Liu Dai and Wang Zhong with 50,000 troops held a reasonable chance of success, contrary to the impression in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms that Cao Cao held no hope for them.
Adviser Cheng Yu said to Cao, “What if Liu Dai and Wang Zhong fail their mission?” “You know as well as I do,” Cao Cao replied, “that they are no match for Xuande. Their function is to divert the enemy.” He then ordered the two commanders: “Do not advance until I have defeated Yuan Shao. Then I will turn my attention to Liu Bei.” Liu Dai and Wang Zhong set out.
— Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 22
A note on the historical Liu Dai
Furthermore, it must be noted that the Romance of the Three Kingdoms made an error here. There were two different historical figures named “Liu Dai”. One was the former Governor of Yan Province mentioned earlier. He initially joined the coalition against Dong Zhuo led by Yuan Shao. Later, as a warlord in Yan Province, he maintained relations with both Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan. When conflict arose between Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan over Ji Province, both sought Liu Dai’s allegiance. See the following post about how Yuan Shao seized Jizhou for more details. Cheng Yu, who later served Cao Cao, was then Liu Dai’s advisor. Liu Dai consulted Cheng Yu, who persuaded him to side with Yuan Shao. Liu Dai heeded this advice, and subsequently, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao.
In 192 AD, the Yellow Turban rebels from Qing Province attacked Yan Province. Governor Liu Dai planned to engage them. Bao Xin advised against a direct attack, recommending a defensive stance instead, arguing the Turbans lacked supply lines and relied on plunder, making prolonged warfare difficult. Unfortunately, Liu Dai rejected this advice, insisted on battle, was defeated, and killed. Following Liu Dai’s death, figures like Chen Gong and Bao Xin welcomed Cao Cao to assume the role of Governor of Yan Province. Cao Cao subsequently defeated the Yellow Turbans, incorporating their elite troops into his army, forming the formidable Qingzhou Corps. From this perspective, the death of Governor Liu Dai significantly impacted the warlord landscape of the late Eastern Han.
Reassessing the two commanders
The Liu Dai that Cao Cao dispatched against Liu Bei was a longtime subordinate and fellow townsman of Cao Cao. He held a senior staff position under Cao Cao at the time. Moreover, this Liu Dai had accompanied Cao Cao on numerous campaigns, achieving notable military successes and being enfeoffed as a Marquis. Therefore, Cao Cao’s appointment of Liu Dai to command the expedition against Liu Bei was not a frivolous gesture or an expectation of failure.
As for Wang Zhong, who accompanied Liu Dai, he was also a capable general with a solid record of achievements, hence his rank in the army was the same with that of Zhang Liao and Li Dian, two other famous generals in Cao Cao’s army.
Their defeat by Liu Bei was not particularly disgraceful. The historical Liu Bei had risen through military merit. At that time, he commanded fierce generals like Guan Yu and Zhang Fei and enjoyed strong support from Xuzhou’s local gentry, making him a formidable opponent. Don’t forget that Liu Bei peacefully took over from the former Governor of Xuzhou, Tao Qian. His status among the local powerful clans speaks volumes. Besides Liu Dai and Wang Zhong, other Cao Cao commanders like Cai Yang, Xiahou Dun, Yu Jin, Zhang He, and Xiahou Yuan also suffered defeats at Liu Bei’s hands.
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