Brief: This article chronicles the fragmented Southern Ming resistance. Loyalist forces, former rebels, and warlords fought the Qing but were crippled by infighting and betrayal. Heroic leaders like Li Dingguo won battles, yet the Yongli Emperor was killed in Burma. The last stronghold fell in 1663, ending organized Ming resistance.
The Fragmentation of Loyalty
Following the fall of the Nanjing regime, the remnants of the Ming court fled south, fracturing into disparate resistance groups. The Prince of Lu (Zhu Yihai), supervised by loyalists Zhang Mingzhen and Zhang Huangyan, held out on the Zhoushan Islands before retreating to Xiamen. While the Prince became a figurehead, Zhang Mingzhen and Zhang Huangyan continued a guerrilla naval war against the Qing for nearly two decades.
Meanwhile, the Longwu Emperor (Prince of Tang, Zhu Yujian), a man of ambition, attempted to organize a northern expedition. However, he was effectively held hostage by the powerful Fujian warlord Zheng Zhilong – a former pirate turned Ming admiral – who refused to provide troops or funding, preferring to hedge his bets with the Qing. Consequently, the Longwu Emperor’s plans stalled, leaving him dependent on officials in other regions.
The Rise and Fall of the “Loyal and Lamenting” Camp
In Hubei and Hunan, the shattered forces of Li Zicheng’s Great Shun army faced a desperate situation. After Li Zicheng’s mysterious death at Jiugong Mountain – reportedly killed by local villagers while sleeping in a temple – his nephew Li Guo and brother-in-law Gao Yigong led the remnants south. Initially distrusted by Ming Governor He Tengjiao, who treated them as bandits, the rebels were eventually won over by the diplomatic efforts of Imperial Inspector Du Yinxu.
Du Yinxu persuaded the rebels that national survival outweighed past grievances. They agreed to renounce their “bandit” status and serve the Ming. The Longwu Emperor accepted them, renaming Li Guo to Li Chixin and Gao Yigong to Gao Bizheng, designating their force as the “Loyal and Lamenting Camp.” Although they achieved several victories, a critical joint operation to capture Jingzhou failed when He Tengjiao retreated prematurely, leaving the camp isolated. Surrounded by Qing forces, the camp suffered heavy losses; leaders like Tian Jianxiu surrendered but were subsequently executed by Prince Dorgon, who deemed them unreliable.
The Collapse of the Longwu and Shaowu Regimes
The Longwu regime met a tragic end due to Zheng Zhilong’s betrayal. When the Emperor attempted to leave Fujian to lead troops personally, Zheng’s defection left him vulnerable. Captured by Qing forces, the Longwu Emperor was executed. Zheng Zhilong defected to Beijing, though his son, Zheng Chenggong, famously refused to follow suit, beginning his own resistance along the coast.
Chaos ensued as another faction in Guangzhou enthroned the Shaowu Emperor (Zhu Yu), leading to a civil war with the Yongli Emperor (Zhu Youlang) in Zhaoqing. This infighting allowed the Qing to easily capture Guangzhou, resulting in the suicide of the Shaowu Emperor and his prime minister Su Guansheng. The Yongli Emperor, terrified, fled repeatedly until stabilized by the defense of Qu Shisi and the arrival of the Loyal and Lamenting Camp. For a brief period, the tide turned, with Ming loyalists recovering vast territories in Hunan and Hubei.
The Tragedy of the Southwest and the Death of Heroes
The resurgence was short-lived. Internal strife and the deaths of key pillars – He Tengjiao (executed), Du Yinxu (died of illness), Qu Shisi (martyred), and Li Guo (died) – crippled the resistance. The remaining Shun forces, led by Liu Tipu, retreated to the mountains of eastern Sichuan, forming the “Kuidong Thirteen Families” to continue the fight independently.
Hope re-emerged with the arrival of the Great West Army (formerly Zhang Xianzhong’s forces). Led by Sun Kewang, Li Dingguo, and Liu Wenxiu, they controlled Yunnan and Guizhou with effective governance. Li Dingguo, known as the “Little Zhuge,” launched a brilliant campaign, killing two Qing generals – Kong Youde and Nikan – and recovering Guangxi and parts of Hunan. However, Sun Kewang’s jealousy sparked a civil war. Defeated by his own defecting troops, Sun fled to the Qing and revealed the Ming’s strategic secrets.
The End of the Line: Burma and Maolu Mountain
With the Qing onslaught led by Wu Sangui and Hong Chengchou, Li Dingguo was forced to retreat. The Yongli Emperor, refusing to move to Sichuan, sought refuge in Burma. In 1661, the Burmese king handed him over to Wu Sangui, who strangled him with a bowstring. Upon hearing the news, Li Dingguo died of grief, instructing his son never to surrender.
In the east, the Kuidong Thirteen Families held out in the rugged mountains. In 1663, a massive Qing offensive targeted their base. Liu Tipu, seeing the inevitable end, committed suicide with his family. The last leader, Li Laiheng, defended Maolu Mountain with ferocity. Starved into submission, he burned his fortress and threw himself and his family into the flames rather than surrender. With his death, the organized military resistance of the Southern Ming came to an end, leaving only Zheng Chenggong holding out on the southeastern coast.
Note
Longwu Emperor (Zhu Yujian)
An ambitious Southern Ming emperor who tried to launch a northern counterattack. He was betrayed by warlord Zheng Zhilong and executed by the Qing.
Yongli Emperor (Zhu Youlang)
The last emperor of the Southern Ming. He fled to Burma, was handed over to Wu Sangui, and was strangled to death.
Li Dingguo
The greatest military hero of the late Southern Ming. Known as “Little Zhuge,” he defeated two Qing princes and fought until his last breath.
Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga)
Son of Zheng Zhilong. He refused to surrender to the Qing and continued coastal resistance, later recovering Taiwan.
Qu Shisi
Loyal minister who supported the Yongli Emperor and died a martyr resisting the Qing.
Sun Kewang
A former rebel general who betrayed the Southern Ming and defected to the Qing, leaking military secrets.
Wu Sangui & Hong Chengchou
Former Ming generals who surrendered to the Qing and led the conquest of southern China.
Fragmentation of the Southern Ming
After the fall of Nanjing, the Ming loyalists split into rival regimes (Longwu, Shaowu, Yongli) and fought each other instead of uniting.
Loyal and Lamenting Camp
Former soldiers of Li Zicheng’s Shun army who joined the Ming to fight the Qing. They won battles but were eventually destroyed.
Great West Army
Former troops of Zhang Xianzhong who joined the Southern Ming. Li Dingguo led them to a brief military revival.
Betrayal in Burma
The Burmese king handed over the Yongli Emperor to Wu Sangui, ending the last legitimate Southern Ming court.
Last Stand at Maolu Mountain
The Kuidong Thirteen Families held out in mountain fortresses until starvation; their leader Li Laiheng burned himself alive rather than surrender.
Southern Ming
Collective name for several short-lived Ming loyalist regimes in southern China after 1644.
Kuidong Thirteen Families
The last organized Ming land resistance group, holding out in eastern Sichuan mountains until 1663.
Little Zhuge
Nickname for Li Dingguo, comparing him to Zhuge Liang — the most famous strategist in Chinese history.
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