In the final years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the imperial capital Chang’an fell under the control of warlords Li Jue and Guo Si, former generals of Dong Zhuo who had seized power after his assassination. By 195 AD, however, their alliance had crumbled into bitter rivalry.
Though both claimed loyalty to the throne, their true allegiance was to personal power. They divided authority—Li Jue held Emperor Xian hostage, while Guo Si detained the imperial ministers. This stalemate created a dangerous equilibrium: neither could eliminate the other without risking total collapse.
Their conflict escalated into open warfare, with months of brutal fighting within the city walls, leaving tens of thousands dead. Yet, despite their mutual hostility, neither side gained decisive advantage. The prolonged deadlock weakened both factions and exposed their vulnerability.
This internal fracture became the crucial opening for change.
Cracks within the camp
The turning point came from within Li Jue’s own ranks. Yang Feng, one of his trusted officers, conspired to assassinate him in June 195 AD. When the plot failed, Yang Feng defected with his troops, significantly weakening Li Jue’s military strength.
Jia Xu next appealed to the Emperor: “Li Jue is greedy and reckless. His army is falling apart, and he is losing heart. It is time to tempt him with an important post.” The Emperor issued a decree appointing him regent-general. Li Jue exclaimed in delight, “This is due to the prayers of the sorceresses,” and rewarded them—but not his soldiers. Li Jue’s cavalry commander Yang Feng complained to Song Guo, “We face death every day from arrow and missile. Are those witches’ services greater than ours?” “Why not kill the traitor and save the sovereign?” Song Guo suggested.
— Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chapter 13
This betrayal was more than a personal loss—it shattered the perception of Li Jue’s invincibility. Other officers began to doubt his leadership, and his ability to maintain control over both the capital and the emperor eroded.
The crisis of the mercenaries
Meanwhile, Li Jue’s desperate attempt to crush Guo Si by hiring Qiang and Hu mercenaries backfired. Promising them palace women and imperial treasures, he invited foreign tribes into the heart of the capital. But these mercenaries soon turned unruly, demanding immediate payment and threatening the emperor himself.
Fearing chaos, Li Jue’s strategist Jia Xu intervened, using diplomacy and promises of official titles to pacify the tribes and send them away. Though successful, this episode further undermined Li Jue’s authority—he could no longer guarantee the safety of the court, even as its nominal protector.
The mediator arrives
Into this volatile situation stepped Zhang Ji, a fellow Liang Province warlord and a relatively neutral figure. Arriving from Shan County, he proposed a peace plan: relocate Emperor Xian to Hongnong, east of Chang’an, where the emperor could be temporarily settled under joint supervision.
Zhang Ji’s intervention was pivotal. As a third-party warlord with his own ambitions, he had no interest in seeing Li Jue or Guo Si grow too powerful. By supporting the emperor’s eastern return, he positioned himself as a protector of the Han, gaining moral high ground and political leverage.
For Li Jue and Guo Si, Zhang Ji’s presence altered the strategic calculus. Continuing the war risked drawing them into conflict with Zhang Ji’s forces, potentially leading to their destruction. Faced with internal decay and external pressure, they had little choice but to accept compromise.
Exploiting division for freedom
Emperor Xian, though a puppet in name, was far from passive. Trapped in Chang’an for years, he keenly observed the fractures among his captors.
He seized the opportunity presented by Zhang Ji’s mediation. Through repeated envoys—including Attendant Minister Liu Ai—he pleaded for the Eastern Return, appealing to the warlords’ self-interest and fear of greater instability.
His persistence paid off. Historical records note that ten rounds of negotiation were required before Li Jue finally relented. The emperor skillfully used the rivalry between Li Jue and Guo Si, ensuring that neither could block the move alone without appearing unreasonable or risking isolation.
Daughters as hostages
When the idea of exchanging sons as hostages failed due to Li Jue’s wife’s objections, it was the emperor’s camp that likely supported the alternative: exchanging daughters. With this arrangement, Li Jue and Guo Si ceased hostilities. The fighting in Chang’an ended, and a fragile peace was restored to the capital.
The decision to let go
Ultimately, Li Jue and Guo Si agreed to release Emperor Xian not out of loyalty, but out of necessity.
- Internal fragmentation: The rebellion of Yang Feng and the mercenaries’ unrest crippled Li Jue’s power. Guo Si, though still strong, could not act unilaterally. Their mutual distrust made unified rule impossible.
- External pressures: Zhang Ji’s mediation introduced a new power dynamic. Resisting the emperor’s move risked war with Zhang Ji, whose support was crucial for regional stability. Allowing the relocation was a way to avoid broader conflict.
- Imperial diplomacy: Emperor Xian’s relentless appeals and strategic use of divisions made continued detention politically costly. By appearing to “grant” the emperor’s wish, the warlords preserved some legitimacy while avoiding total confrontation.
Thus, on the surface, it was a gesture of compliance. In reality, it was a tactical retreat—a reluctant concession to preserve what little power they still held.
The decision by Li Jue and Guo Si to allow Emperor Xian’s departure was not an act of mercy, but the inevitable result of their decline. Their internal strife, the rise of rival warlords, and the emperor’s quiet resistance combined to break their grip on power.
Emperor Xian’s escape was not a triumph of force, but a victory of patience, timing, and political calculation—a rare moment of agency in a reign defined by captivity.
The fragile journey east
With the agreement in place, preparations for the Eastern Return began. In July 195 AD, Emperor Xian left Chang’an under escort, marking the end of more than five years of warlord captivity(from 190 to 195AD).
Yet peace was fleeting. Soon after, Li Jue and Guo Si briefly reunited to pursue the emperor. Zhang Ji, and then Li Le also rebelled.
By the time Emperor Xian reached Luoyang in 196 AD, he was already being maneuvered into the grasp of a new power: Cao Cao, who would soon bring the emperor to Xuchang, ushering in a new phase of the Three Kingdoms era.
After Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty broke free from the control of the Xiliang warlords (Li Jue and Guo Si) and was escorted by Cao Cao to the capital Xudu, he did not gain true freedom or power. Instead, he went from being “a puppet of the Xiliang warlords” to “a political tool for Cao Cao to ‘hold the emperor hostage to command the nobles’”.
His fate remained tightly trapped in the vortex of power struggles until the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In 220, Cao Cao passed away, and his son Cao Pi inherited the title of “King of Wei”. Soon after, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne—a event that marked the official end of the Eastern Han Dynasty and became the final fate of Emperor Xian. In 234, Emperor Xian died at the age of 54.
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