The late Eastern Han dynasty was a time of chaos, corruption, and moral crisis. As peasant uprisings like the Yellow Turban Rebellion shook the foundations of imperial rule, ambitious men emerged to shape the future.
Among them, Cao Cao stood out not only for his later military and political dominance but also for his early career as a reformer and administrator. His tenure as Chancellor of Jinan State revealed a young man with ideals—determined to root out corruption and restore justice. Yet, his bold reforms clashed with entrenched interests, forcing him into retreat.
Years later, during Dong Zhuo’s tyrannical takeover, another official, Wu Fu, chose martyrdom through assassination, while Cao Cao chose survival and rebellion.
This article explores two contrasting forms of resistance—one heroic in death, the other strategic in exile—and reevaluates the legacy of both Wu Fu’s courage and Cao Cao’s pragmatism.
Cao Cao’s Reforms in Jinan
After distinguishing himself in suppressing the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Cao Cao was appointed Chancellor of Jinan State, a position that gave him administrative control over a significant region.
Upon taking office, he immediately launched a campaign against corruption and superstition. He discovered that there were over six hundred unauthorized shrines dedicated to Liu Zhang, a distant Han prince, scattered across the region. These shrines were not acts of genuine veneration but tools for officials and local elites to extort money from the people.
Though previous administrators had turned a blind eye—knowing that cracking down would bring no personal gain, Cao Cao refused to compromise. He ordered the destruction of all the shrines, halting the financial exploitation and restoring public trust.
This act demonstrated his early commitment to justice and earned him widespread popular support, marking him as a rare official who dared to challenge systemic corruption.
The Protection of a Eunuch Lineage
Why was Cao Cao able to act so boldly when others hesitated?
The answer lies in his family background. Though socially stigmatized, Cao Cao’s father, Cao Song, was the adopted son of Cao Teng, a powerful and influential eunuch who served four emperors and held the title of Marquis of Fei Village. This connection placed the Cao family within the highest echelons of court power, even if they were looked down upon by the scholar-gentry.
Because of this protective shield, Cao Cao could afford to alienate local elites without immediate fear of retribution. While his actions did not enrich him materially, they enhanced his reputation as a clean, capable, and principled official—a priceless asset in the long term.
As the Sanguozhi notes, Cao Cao’s early career was marked by such bold reforms, which, though unpopular among corrupt officials, laid the foundation for his later ability to attract talent and popular support.
Exile and Reflection
Despite his successes, Cao Cao’s aggressive anti-corruption campaign made him powerful enemies. Though his family’s influence protected him from execution or imprisonment, he was politically marginalized and eventually forced out of office.
This experience taught him a crucial lesson: in a decaying system, moral righteousness alone cannot sustain change. After a period of service in the capital, he resigned and retired to his hometown, reflecting on the nature of power and governance.
His withdrawal was not defeat, but strategic recalibration. He understood that real reform required not just integrity, but military strength and political authority.
Return to Power
Cao Cao’s return to public life came when Emperor Ling established the West Garden Army in 188 AD—a new imperial army designed to counterbalance the growing power of regional warlords and eunuchs.
Cao Cao was appointed Commandant of the Infantry (Dianjun Xiao Wei), one of the eight key commanders. This role placed him at the heart of the capital’s military apparatus.
It was from this position that he would soon face the greatest crisis of his generation: Dong Zhuo’s seizure of Luoyang.
The Legend of the Seven-Star Dagger
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong dramatizes Cao Cao’s opposition to Dong Zhuo with a famous scene: Cao Cao borrows a precious Seven-Star Dagger from Minister Wang Yun, infiltrates Dong Zhuo’s chamber under the pretense of presenting it, and nearly assassinates the tyrant. When Dong Zhuo sees his reflection in a mirror and turns, Cao Cao quickly shifts tactics, kneels and offers the dagger as a gift, then flees the capital as quickly as he could. Cao Cao failed to assassinate Dong Zhuo.
This episode is entirely fictional—a masterful piece of literary embellishment to enhance Cao Cao’s image as both daring and resourceful. In reality, Cao Cao never attempted to assassinate Dong Zhuo.
Instead, historical records state that Cao Cao recognized Dong Zhuo’s brutality and instability, disapproved of his usurpation, and quietly fled Luoyang to raise an army in rebellion.
The True Assassin: Wu Fu’s Martyrdom
The man who actually attempted to kill Dong Zhuo was Wu Fu.
Disgusted by Dong Zhuo’s tyranny—his usurpation of imperial authority, execution of dissenters, desecration of tombs, and abuse of royal women—Wu Fu resolved to eliminate him.
He concealed a dagger beneath his robe and approached Dong Zhuo, stabbing at him. But the attempt failed. Captured and interrogated, Wu Fu defiantly declared:
“You, Dong Zhuo, are unworthy of serving the emperor! I wish to eliminate you for the sake of the nation!”
Enraged, Dong Zhuo had Wu Fu brutally executed, along with his entire clan (three generations).
Wu Fu’s act was one of pure, self-sacrificial heroism—a final stand for Han legitimacy in the face of overwhelming tyranny.
Two Heroes, Two Paths: Cao Cao vs. Wu Fu
- Wu Fu chose the path of the martyr: he acted on principle, knowing he would likely die, hoping his sacrifice might inspire others.
- Cao Cao chose the path of the survivor: he preserved himself, fled, and raised an army to oppose Dong Zhuo collectively, rather than alone.
Neither approach is inherently superior. Wu Fu’s courage is undeniable; Cao Cao’s pragmatism ensured lasting impact. While Wu Fu died and was forgotten by many, Cao Cao lived to become the architect of the Wei state, reshaping China’s political landscape.
Together, their stories illustrate the dilemmas of leadership in collapse: when to confront, when to retreat, and how to serve the greater good.
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