In 200 CE, the long-simmering rivalry between Yuan Shao and Cao Cao reached its climax at Guandu.
Yuan Shao, commanding a vast army stretching dozens of miles from west to east, was confident of total victory. His forces outnumbered Cao Cao’s significantly, and his granaries were full. In contrast, Cao Cao’s smaller host had already suffered setbacks in early skirmishes. Recognizing his disadvantage, Cao Cao ordered his troops to fortify their camp with earthen ramparts and adopt a defensive posture.
The archers rained arrows
Yuan Shao, interpreting this as fear, escalated his tactics: he directed his men to build mounds and elevated platforms outside Cao Cao’s walls, from which archers rained arrows into the camp. Cao’s soldiers were forced to crawl on the ground under shields – a humiliating spectacle that drew mocking laughter from Yuan’s ranks.
The “Thunder Wagon” strikes back
Refusing to be outmaneuvered, Cao Cao consulted his advisors. Together, they devised a revolutionary weapon: a stone-throwing catapult capable of hurling big stones with a thunderous roar – earning it the nickname “Thunder Wagon”or “Thunder Cart”.
Deployed against Yuan Shao’s towers, the catapults shattered the wooden platforms, crushing defenders and sending survivors fleeing in panic. Yuan Shao’s aerial assault collapsed.
Undeterred, he shifted tactics again – this time ordering tunneling operations beneath Cao Cao’s camp under cover of night. But with thousands of laborers digging close to enemy lines, secrecy was impossible. Cao Cao quickly uncovered the plot and countered by digging a deep, continuous trench along his front, severing all underground passages.
Thus, both of Yuan Shao’s major offensives – aerial and subterranean – were neutralized through Cao Cao’s ingenuity and vigilance.
The breaking point
After over a month of stalemate, Cao Cao’s supplies dwindled dangerously low. Morale faltered; some officers urged retreat. Cao Cao wrote to his chief strategist Xun Yu in Xuchang, seeking counsel.
Xun Yu’s reply was resolute:
“This is the decisive moment for the realm. Yuan Shao has committed all his strength, yet he cannot employ talent wisely. Though we lack grain, we are not yet defeated. Hold firm – his camp will soon fracture from within.”
Convinced, Cao Cao rallied his troops:
“In half a month, we shall crush Yuan Shao!”
Soon after, Cao’s scouts captured a Yuan spy and learned of an approaching grain convoy. Advisor Xun You urged an ambush. Cao Cao dispatched Xu Huang and Shi Huan, who destroyed the convoy and burned all supplies.
The fatal mistake: Ignoring wise counsel
Yuan Shao responded by stockpiling a massive new reserve – over 10,000 carts of grain – at Wuchao, forty li from his main camp, guarded by general Chunyu Qiong with over 10,000 men.
His strategist Ju Shou warned:
“Send additional patrols along the supply route – Wuchao alone is insufficient.”
Another advisor, Xu You, proposed a bold alternative:
“Cao Cao has emptied Xuchang to fight here. Send a detachment to seize the capital – it’s undefended!”
But Yuan Shao, arrogant in his numerical superiority, dismissed both.
“I’ll overwhelm him head-on – no need for tricks.”
Then came disaster: Shen Pei, Yuan’s inspector in Ji Province, sent word that Xu You had accepted bribes and his family had been imprisoned. Enraged, Yuan Shao publicly humiliated Xu You, who – furious and ashamed – defected to Cao Cao that very night.
The midnight raid on Wuchao
Cao Cao, overjoyed, rushed barefoot to greet Xu You. After probing Cao Cao’s true grain reserves (which were down to one month’s supply), Xu You revealed the Wuchao secret:
“Strike Wuchao with 5,000 cavalry. Burn the grain. Within three days, Yuan Shao collapses without a fight.”
At midnight, Cao Cao led a stealth force disguised as Yuan troops, carrying torches and kindling. When challenged, they claimed:
“Reinforcements for Wuchao – fearing Cao’s raid!”
The ruse worked. Upon reaching Wuchao, they torched the granaries. Flames lit the sky. Chunyu Qiong fought desperately but was overwhelmed. Cao Cao’s men slaughtered the guards and reduced the entire stockpile to ashes.
Collapse from within: Betrayal and Rout
When news reached Yuan Shao’s camp, chaos erupted. General Zhang He urged immediate relief for Wuchao. But advisor Guo Tu insisted:
“Attack Cao Cao’s main camp instead – he’ll flee to save it!”
Yuan Shao, indecisive, split his response: he sent cavalry to Wuchao while ordering Zhang He and Gao Lan to assault Cao’s fort.
Both missions failed. Wuchao fell. Cao Hong repelled Zhang He’s attack with heavy losses. Humiliated, Guo Tu blamed Zhang He for “lack of effort.” Fearing punishment – and seeing Yuan Shao’s cause as lost – Zhang He and Gao Lan defected to Cao Cao.
With grain gone, generals gone, and morale shattered, Yuan Shao’s army disintegrated. Soldiers fled en masse. Yuan Shao himself escaped across the Yellow River in civilian clothes, accompanied by only 800 cavalry – helmetless, armorless, a broken warlord.
Mercy and Wisdom: Cao Cao burns the letters
In Yuan Shao’s abandoned camp, Cao Cao discovered hundreds of secret letters from his own officers pledging allegiance to Yuan Shao during the crisis.
When urged to punish the traitors, Cao Cao refused:
“When Yuan Shao was strong, even I doubted my survival. How can I blame others?”
He ordered all letters burned, winning loyalty through magnanimity.
Yuan Shao’s regret and death
Yuan Shao retreated to Liyang. Reflecting on his catastrophic loss – once commanding hundreds of thousands, now nearly destitute – he lamented:
“How can I face Tian Feng again?”
Indeed, Tian Feng, still imprisoned for opposing the war, wept upon hearing of the defeat. The jailer consoled him:
“Now your wisdom is proven – you’ll be honored!”
But Tian Feng knew better:
“If Yuan Shao had won, he might have pardoned me in joy. But in defeat, he’ll blame me for his shame. I am doomed.”
Days later, Yuan Shao executed Tian Feng.
Though he plotted a comeback, Yuan Shao never recovered. In early summer 202 CE, consumed by grief and rage, he died of illness and hemorrhage. His sons – Yuan Tan, Yuan Xi, and Yuan Shang – soon turned on each other, allowing Cao Cao to conquer their territories one by one.
By 207 CE, the entire northern heartland once ruled by Yuan Shao belonged to Cao Cao – laying the foundation for the state of Cao Wei.
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