In 188 AD, Liu Yan, a member of the Han imperial clan and former Governor of Nanyang, was appointed Inspector of Yizhou (modern Sichuan and Chongqing). Upon his arrival, he implemented a policy of leniency and benevolence, offering refuge and stability to a population ravaged by war elsewhere.
Develop the economy
As the Liangzhou Rebellion erupted in the northwest and the Campaign against Dong Zhuo plunged the central China into chaos (189–191 AD), tens of thousands of refugees—including skilled artisans, scholars, and farmers—flooded into Yi Province(Yizhou). Liu Yan actively welcomed and resettled these migrants, integrating them into the local economy.
While much of the Han Empire burned in conflict, Yi Province flourished under Liu Yan’s rule. Agriculture, trade, and infrastructure improved dramatically. However, this prosperity was not for the sake of the Han dynasty. Liu Yan had already begun to view Yi Province as his personal domain, laying the foundation for an independent regime.
Eliminating rivals and seizing control
By 191 AD, having consolidated his power over three years, Liu Yan turned against the local officials and powerful gentry families of Yi Province, whom he saw as obstacles to his absolute authority.
One of his most prominent opponents was Su Gu, the Governor of Hanzhong Commandery, a strategically vital gateway to Yi Province. Su Gu refused to submit to Liu Yan’s orders, challenging his autonomy. In response, Liu Yan dispatched two military leaders: Zhang Lu, a Daoist sect leader, and Zhang Xiu, a general of the Five Pecks of Rice sect, to attack Hanzhong.
Su Gu’s forces were decisively defeated, and Su Gu was killed. Hanzhong fell under Liu Yan’s control.
The rise of Zhang Lu
After the conquest, Zhang Lu eliminated his ally Zhang Xiu, absorbing his troops and seizing sole control of Hanzhong. This act revealed Zhang Lu’s own ambitions.
Liu Yan, rather than punishing Zhang Lu, endorsed his rule. In fact, he gave Zhang Lu a critical and treasonous order: to intercept and kill any imperial envoys sent from the Han court to Yi Province.
With Yuan Shu and Liu Biao controlling the eastern approaches to Yi Province, and Zhang Lu blocking the northern route through Hanzhong, all communication with the central government in Chang’an was severed. Yi Province was now effectively isolated and self-governing, marking the beginning of its de facto independence.
The revolt of Jia Long
The Han court, now under Dong Zhuo’s control, became aware of Liu Yan’s defiance. When rebellion broke out in Jianwei Commandery, Dong Zhuo sent Zhao Qian to lead an army into Yi Province, aiming to subdue Liu Yan.
Zhao Qian also persuaded Jia Long, a powerful local gentry leader who had originally strongly supported Liu Yan’s entry into Yi Province in 188 AD. Jia Long had hoped to use Liu Yan to strengthen his own clan’s position. But once Liu Yan was secure and strong, he began cracking down on local elites, including Jia Long’s faction.
Feeling betrayed, Jia Long allied with Zhao Qian and another local commander, Ren Qi, to raise an army against Liu Yan. However, Liu Yan’s forces, now battle-hardened and well-supplied, crushed the rebellion. Jia Long and Ren Qi were captured and executed.
Zhao Qian, seeing the strength of Liu Yan’s position and the failure of the uprising, withdrew his forces. The Jianwei Rebellion ended in failure.
The birth of a warlord kingdom
The suppression of Jia Long’s revolt marked a turning point. It demonstrated that Liu Yan had defeated both internal dissent and external interference, consolidating his control over Yi Province.
From this point forward, Liu Yan ruled independently of the Han central government. He continued to suppress local aristocrats, expanded his military, and used the wealth of Yi Province to build a self-sufficient warlord state.
Though he never formally declared himself emperor, Liu Yan’s actions in 188–191 AD established the foundation for the Shu Han kingdom that his son Liu Zhang and later Liu Bei would inherit. His rule exemplifies the fragmentation of the Han dynasty and the rise of regional warlords during the late imperial crisis.
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