When a ruler does not hold himself to the standard of Yao, yet demands that his ministers be as loyal as Wu Zixu, he is wishing that all the people of Yin would be like Bi Gan. If everyone were like Bi Gan, then the ruler above would commit no errors, and those below would not perish. But if a ruler fails to weigh his own strength, while having a minister like Tian Cheng beneath him, and still wishes that his ministers would all be like Bi Gan, then his state will never enjoy a single day of peace.
If the ways of Yao and Shun are abandoned and Jie and Zhou are installed in their place, then the people will not be able to take joy in their strengths, but will be consumed by anxiety over their weaknesses. When their strengths are lost, the state will achieve no accomplishments; when they are trapped by their weaknesses, the people will no longer find life worth living. To govern people who do not find life worth living with no accomplishments to show – this cannot work among ordinary citizens. In such a case, the ruler above will have no way to command his subjects, and the subjects below will have no way to serve their ruler.
Note
This Han Feizi excerpt criticizes rulers demanding ministers’ absolute loyalty without practicing self‑discipline. It warns against unrealistic expectations, stressing governance should let people utilize their strengths to sustain social order.
Yao:
One of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient Chinese mythology, Yao was considered the epitome of wisdom and virtue. He famously chose the most capable successor (Shun) rather than passing power to his own son. Han Fei uses him as the ultimate standard of self-discipline for a ruler.
Wu Zixu:
A brilliant statesman and military strategist who served the State of Wu. Wu Zixu helped King Helü of Wu transform it into a major power. However, his successor King Fuchai ignored his warnings about the rival State of Yue and eventually forced Wu Zixu to commit suicide. He became the archetype of the loyal minister who demands absolute dedication – but whose loyalty is ultimately unreciprocated by an unwise ruler.
Bi Gan:
A nobleman of the Shang Dynasty and uncle of the tyrannical King Zhou. Bi Gan famously remonstrated with King Zhou so persistently that the king had his heart cut out. He became the ultimate symbol of loyal self-sacrifice in Chinese political culture. Han Fei uses him to illustrate the absurdity of expecting every minister to be willing to die for the ruler.
Tian Cheng (田成), also known as Tian Chang (田常):
A powerful minister of the State of Qi during the late Spring and Autumn period. Tian Cheng gradually accumulated power, eventually killed Duke Jian of Qi, and seized control of the state. His descendants later formally replaced the ruling Jiang family, establishing the Tian Qi dynasty. He serves as Han Fei’s prime example of a dangerous minister who cannot be controlled by wishful thinking alone.
Jie and Zhou:
The last rulers of the Xia and Shang dynasties respectively, both remembered as archetypal tyrants in Chinese history. Jie was known for his cruelty and extravagance; Zhou for his sadism and debauchery. Together, they represent the antithesis of good governance.
Not holding oneself to Yao’s standard while demanding Zixu’s loyalty from ministers:
This is one of Han Fei’s sharpest political critiques. It exposes the hypocrisy of rulers who are lenient with themselves but ruthless with their subordinates. The deeper point is that authority without self-discipline is unsustainable.
Wishing that all the people of Yin would be like Bi Gan:
Han Fei uses this to show the absurdity of expecting universal self-sacrifice. Bi Gan’s loyalty was extraordinary precisely because it was rare – if everyone had to die to prove loyalty, the system itself would be broken.
Failing to weigh one’s own strength while having a Tian Cheng beneath:
This is a direct warning about the danger of wishful thinking in politics. A ruler who cannot assess his own power, while facing a minister as dangerous as Tian Cheng, cannot rely on hoping for loyalty – he needs institutional safeguards.
Taking joy in one’s strengths and anxiety over one’s weaknesses:
This phrase captures Han Fei’s view of good governance: a well-designed system should allow people to excel at what they are good at, rather than forcing them to constantly worry about what they cannot do. When governance reverses this – punishing people for their weaknesses instead of rewarding their strengths – it destroys both productivity and morale.
Ordinary Citizens (齐民):
Literally “equal people,” this term refers to the common populace. Han Fei uses it to emphasize that his principles are not abstract ideals for the elite, but practical rules that must work for everyone.
人主不自刻以堯而責人臣以子胥，是幸殷人之盡如比干，盡如比干則上不失、下不亡。不權其力而有田成，而幸其身盡如比干，故國不得一安。廢堯、舜而立桀、紂，則人不得樂所長而憂所短。失所長則國家無功，守所短則民不樂生，以無功御不樂生，不可行於齊民。如此，則上無以使下，下無以事上。
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