Introduction: This article recounts the late Yuan Dynasty’s fatal succession crises. Frequent coups, broken pacts, and assassinations rocked the court after Emperor Chengzong’s death. Rival princes and warlords fought for the throne, draining the empire. By the time Huizong took power, decades of chaos had doomed Mongol rule in China.
The Coup of 1307 and the Rise of Wuzong
Following the death of Emperor Chengzong in 1307, the Yuan Dynasty plunged into a succession crisis that would plague it for decades. With no designated heir, the court split into two factions. Empress Bulugan and Left Prime Minister Aqutai supported Ananda, the Prince of Anxi and a cousin of the late emperor, who was favored by many Semu officials and adhered to Islam. However, Right Prime Minister Harghasun championed Hai Shan, the grandson of Zhenjin and nephew of Chengzong, who was stationed in the northwest with a formidable military record.
Harghasun secretly summoned Hai Shan’s younger brother, Ayurbarwada, who was stationed in Henan. Ayurbarwada rushed to Dadu, launching a swift coup before Ananda could consolidate power. Ananda was captured and executed, while Aqutai was beheaded and Empress Bulugan forced to commit suicide. Ayurbarwada declared himself Regent and invited his brother to ascend the throne. Hai Shan arrived at Shangdu and was proclaimed Emperor Wuzong. In gratitude, Wuzong named Ayurbarwada as his heir apparent (Crown Prince), with a verbal agreement that the throne would eventually return to Wuzong’s son, Kusala.
Extravagance and Reform: From Wuzong to Renzong
Emperor Wuzong was a brilliant commander but a reckless administrator. He replaced officials with his own cronies, squandered the treasury on lavish rewards, and ordered the construction of a new capital, Zhongdu, in Longxing (modern Zhangbei). The project proceeded year-round, causing immense suffering and death among laborers freezing in the harsh northern winters. Wuzong’s excessive drinking led to severe illness, and he died after less than four years on the throne.
Honoring the succession pact, Ayurbarwada ascended as Emperor Renzong. Educated by Confucian scholars like Li Meng, Wang Yue, and Zhao Mengfu, Renzong embraced benevolent governance. He immediately halted the Zhongdu construction, streamlined the bureaucracy, and stabilized the currency. A staunch advocate of Confucianism, he ordered the translation of classics like The Governance of Zhenguan, Zizhi Tongjian (by Sima Guang), and Great Learning Extended (by Zhen Dexiu) into Mongolian for his officials. Crucially, Renzong restored the imperial examination system (Keju), which had been suspended for decades, providing a path for Han scholars to enter government and stabilizing the intellectual class. His ten-year reign marked a period of relative peace and prosperity.
The Betrayal of Kusala and the Assassination of Yingzong
Despite his reforms, Renzong faced a moral dilemma regarding the succession. Bound by his promise to name Kusala (Wuzong’s son) as heir, he instead favored his own son, Shidebala. Persuaded by Prime Minister Temuder, Renzong exiled Kusala to Yunnan as the Prince of Zhou. When Kusala rebelled en route, he was defeated and fled to the Chagatai Khanate. Renzong then named Shidebala as Crown Prince. Renzong’s heavy drinking contributed to his early death at age thirty-six.
Shidebala succeeded as Emperor Yingzong. At only seventeen, he acted decisively against corrupt officials and reduced the influence of Semu elites, even destroying some Muslim mosques while promoting Buddhism. These actions bred deep resentment. In 1323, while returning from Shangdu to Dadu, Yingzong was assassinated at Nanpo by a group of conspirators led by the Censor-in-Chief Tieshi. This event, known as the “Coups at Nanpo,” ended his three-year reign.
The Rise of Yesün Temür and the Coup of Yelü Temür
The conspirators had previously invited Yesün Temür, the Prince of Jin and eldest grandson of Zhenjin, to take the throne. Although Yesün Temür had attempted to warn Yingzong of the plot, the message arrived too late. Upon Yingzong’s death, he accepted the crown and became Emperor Taiding. Once secure, Taiding swiftly arrested and executed Tieshi and his co-conspirators for regicide, restoring order. Taiding ruled steadily, balancing Confucian administration with support for Buddhism and Islam, and named his son Arigaba as heir.
In 1328, Taiding died suddenly in Shangdu. Arigaba was enthroned as Emperor Tianshun in Shangdu. However, in Dadu, El Temür, a former guard of Emperor Wuzong, launched a counter-coup. Arguing that only Wuzong’s descendants had the legitimate claim, El Temür seized control of the capital and invited Wuzong’s second son, Tugh Temür, from Jiangling. Tugh Temür arrived in Dadu and proclaimed himself Emperor Wenzong, sparking a civil war between the two capitals. The Shangdu forces, supporting the child emperor Tianshun, were defeated; Tianshun disappeared amidst the chaos, presumed killed.
The Poisoning of Mingzong and the Curse of Guilt
Victorious, Wenzong declared he was merely holding the throne for his elder brother, Kusala, whom he invited back from exile. Kusala, now entrenched in the west, reluctantly agreed and was proclaimed Emperor Mingzong at Karokorum. He confirmed Tugh Temür as his heir. However, when the brothers met at Shangdu to plan their return to Dadu, Mingzong suddenly died after vomiting blood. While Wenzong publicly mourned, it was widely suspected that El Temür, sensing Wenzong’s reluctance to relinquish power, had poisoned Mingzong. Wenzong resumed the throne, pretending ignorance, and treated Mingzong’s widow, Babusha, and her sons with apparent kindness.
Babusha, however, never ceased accusing Wenzong of murder. Fearing exposure, Empress Budashiri and eunuchs conspired to force Babusha to drink poison. Plagued by guilt, Wenzong believed his young son’s sudden death was divine retribution from his brother’s spirit. On his deathbed in 1332, he instructed Budashiri to ensure the throne passed to Mingzong’s line.
The Final Decline: From Ningzong to Huizong
After Wenzong’s death, El Temür attempted to install Wenzong’s young son, El Tegüs, as emperor. Empress Budashiri, haunted by the loss of her own son and her husband’s dying wish, refused. Instead, she insisted on enthroning Mingzong’s seven-year-old son, Rinchinbal, who became Emperor Ningzong. Ningzong died merely months later. El Temür again pushed for El Tegüs, but Budashiri stood firm, ordering the recall of Mingzong’s eldest surviving son, Toghon Temür, from exile in the south. El Temür resisted but died suddenly of a urinary ailment before he could block the succession.
In 1333, Toghon Temür was finally enthroned as Emperor Huizong (also known as Toghon Temür Khan). At thirteen, he was intelligent and eager to restore the empire. However, the decades of rapid succession, coups, and purges had severely weakened the state. The Yuan Dynasty, once the mightiest empire on earth, was now spiraling toward its inevitable collapse.
Note
Succession Crisis
Constant power struggles over the Mongol throne, with no stable rules of inheritance.
Nanpo Coup (1323)
Assassination of Emperor Yingzong, a turning point in Yuan decline.
Civil War of Two Capitals (1328)
War between Shangdu and Dadu factions over who should be emperor.
Emperor Wuzong (Hai Shan)
Warrior emperor who seized the throne in 1307; made a pact to pass it to his brother.
Emperor Renzong (Ayurbarwada)
Confucian‑educated reformer who restored civil service exams and stabilized the Yuan.
Emperor Yingzong (Shidebala)
Young reformer assassinated in the Nanpo Coup for opposing corruption.
Emperor Wenzong (Tugh Temür)
Seized the throne and allegedly poisoned his brother Mingzong to keep power.
Emperor Huizong (Toghon Temür)
Last Yuan emperor; inherited a crumbling empire torn by decades of civil strife.
Confucian Governance
Han‑style ruling methods adopted by some Yuan emperors to stabilize China.
Keju (Imperial Examinations)
Restored by Renzong to let Han scholars serve in government.
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