Introduction: This article narrates the rise of the Yuan Dynasty. After the Mongols broke their promise to the Song, Kublai Khan embraced Han governance to rule Central Plains. He won the Mongol succession war, founded the Yuan in 1271, built Dadu (Beijing) as capital, and prepared to conquer the Southern Song.
The Broken Promise and the Failed Expedition
After the fall of the Jin Dynasty, the Mongol Empire seemingly forgot its agreement to return the lands south of the Yellow River to the Southern Song. When Song troops attempted to take possession, the Mongols arbitrarily redefined the border, limiting Song control to areas south of Chenzhou and Caizhou, far from the Yellow River. Outraged, Song generals Zhao Fan and Zhao Kui – sons of the famed commander Zhao Fang – urged Emperor Lizong and Chancellor Zheng Qingzhi to seize the opportunity while Mongol forces were withdrawing. They proposed recapturing the “Three Capitals”: Luoyang, Kaifeng, and Shangqiu.
Confident in a quick victory, the Song army advanced north, initially occupying Kaifeng and Luoyang. However, these were empty traps. The Mongols swiftly returned, encircling the Song forces in Luoyang. Cut off from supplies and reinforcements, the Song army was forced to retreat in disgrace. Within two months, the expedition collapsed, and the recovered territories were lost again. Emperor Lizong, furious at the failure, dismissed Zhao Kui and his officers. Ogedei Khan, the Mongol ruler, sent an envoy to demand an explanation for the occupation, forcing the Song to apologize. This incident marked the end of the fragile peace and the beginning of over forty years of intermittent war between the Song and the Mongols.
Kublai’s Vision: Embracing Han Governance
Following the deaths of Ogedei and his successor Guyuk, Monge Khan ascended the throne. Recognizing the difficulty of ruling the vast Han Chinese territories, Mongke appointed his younger brother, Kublai, to administer the region. Unlike traditional Mongol leaders, Kublai had long admired Han culture. He surrounded himself with Confucian scholars and advisors, including the monk Haiyun, who introduced him to Liu Bingzhong (formerly known as Zicong), a former official well-versed in theI Ching and statecraft. Other notable advisors like Zhao Bi, Yao Shu, Hao Jing, and Wang Wentong joined his court, forming a brain trust dedicated to governing through Han methods.
Liu Bingzhong advised Kublai: “One can conquer the world on horseback, but one cannot rule it from horseback.” He urged Kublai to emulate wise emperors like Han Wendi(Emperor Wen of Han), Han Guangwu, and Tang Taizong by establishing a bureaucratic government, codifying laws, reducing taxes, and promoting agriculture. Kublai enthusiastically adopted these strategies. He commissioned Liu Bingzhong to build a new capital at Kaiping (near modern Zhenglan Banner), which became his base for implementing reforms. Under this administration, the region stabilized, agriculture flourished, and Kublai’s reputation among the Han people soared.
Suspicion and Reconciliation
Kublai’s growing popularity aroused suspicion among Mongol conservatives, who whispered to Mongke that Kublai intended to seize the Central Plains for himself. Mongke sent investigators who fabricated over a hundred charges against Kublai’s officials. Advised by Yao Shu to demonstrate loyalty, Kublai sent his family back to the Mongol capital of Karakorum and soon followed himself. The brothers met with tears; Kublai pledged his loyalty, and Mongke, reassured, embraced him.
Shortly after, Mongke announced a grand campaign to conquer the Song. He planned a three-pronged attack: he would lead the western force into Sichuan, Kublai would command the eastern force against Ezhou, and a third army would advance from Yunnan. The goal was to converge on the Song capital, Lin’an.
The Death of Mongke and the Succession Crisis
In 1258, Kublai’s forces reached the north bank of the Yangtze, poised to attack Ezhou. Suddenly, news arrived from Sichuan: Monge Khan had died while besieging the Diaoyu Fortress in Hezhou, struck by Song projectile weapons. Kublai’s brother Mojo urged an immediate retreat to secure the succession. However, Kublai hesitated, fearing that returning empty-handed would weaken his claim to the throne. He decided to press the attack on Ezhou to gain military leverage.
Meanwhile, his wife, Chabi, sent urgent word that his youngest brother, Ariq Boke, was plotting to seize the title of Great Khan at Karakorum and had blocked the return routes. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Kublai consulted his advisors. Hao Jing suggested securing the imperial seal and the late Khan’s body to legitimize his claim. Kublai agreed. He ordered Lian Xixian to rush ahead to Kaiping to gauge support, while he secretly negotiated a truce with the Song, withdrew his army, and raced north with a small retinue.
The Civil War and the Proclamation of the Yuan
In the spring of 1260, Kublai held a kurultai (council) at Kaiping, where he was elected Great Khan by his supporters. Breaking with tradition, he adopted the Chinese era name “Zhongtong” and declared himself Emperor, signaling a shift from a steppe khanate to a Chinese-style dynasty. Ariq Boke, holding a rival council at Karakorum, also claimed the title, sparking a civil war.
The conflict lasted four years. Ariq Boke, lacking military experience and cut off from supplies, gradually lost support. Kublai, controlling the resource-rich Han territories, eventually defeated his brother. Ariq Boke surrendered but remained unrepentant, stating, “Before, I was right and you were wrong; now that you have won, you are right.” Kublai spared his life but executed his key supporters. With his internal rivals eliminated, Kublai sought to solidify his legitimacy. On the advice of Liu Bingzhong, who cited theI Ching’s concept of “Qianyuan” (Great Origin), Kublai proclaimed the new dynasty “Da Yuan” (Great Yuan) in 1271, becoming Emperor Shizu. He posthumously honored his predecessors: Genghis Khan (Taizu), Ogedei (Taizong), Guyuk (Dingzong), and Monge (Xianzong).
Building Dadu and the Final Countdown
With the dynasty established, Kublai needed a proper capital. Karakorum was too remote, and Kaiping (now designated as the Upper Capital) was too small. He chose Yanjing (modern Beijing) as the site for his new capital. He tasked Liu Bingzhong, now restored to his lay name and given the title Bingzhong, with designing the city. Liu selected the area around Taiye Pool and Qionghua Island as the center, constructing a magnificent new city named Dadu (Great Capital), which became the primary seat of the Yuan Empire, with Kaiping serving as the summer residence (Shangdu).
Having secured his throne and built his capital, Emperor Shizu turned his eyes south. The Southern Song Dynasty, weakened by internal decay and decades of warfare, stood as the final obstacle to total unification. The stage was set for the final conquest that would bring all of China under Yuan rule.
Note
Kublai Khan
Grandson of Genghis Khan; founder of the Yuan Dynasty, titled Emperor Shizu. He adopted Han systems to govern China.
Mongke Khan
Kublai’s brother; Mongol ruler who died attacking Diaoyu Fortress during the Song conquest.
Liu Bingzhong
Confucian advisor to Kublai; designed Dadu and proposed Han-style ruling policies.
Ariq Boke
Kublai’s youngest brother; fought a civil war for the Mongol throne and was defeated.
Emperor Lizong
Southern Song ruler whose failed northern expedition triggered long war with the Mongols.
Yuan Dynasty (Da Yuan)
First non-Han dynasty to rule all China, founded by Kublai in 1271.
Dadu
Kublai’s capital, today’s Beijing; designed in traditional Chinese imperial style.
Kurultai
Mongol tribal council where khans were traditionally elected.
Han Governance
Confucian bureaucracy, laws, and agricultural policies used to rule Han regions.
“Conquer the world on horseback, but cannot rule from horseback”
Famous saying advising Mongol rulers to adopt civilized governance for China.
Three Capitals Campaign
Song’s failed attempt to recapture Kaifeng, Luoyang, Shangqiu from the Mongols.
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