In the autumn of 208 CE, following his swift conquest of Jing Province after Liu Cong’s surrender, Cao Cao sent a letter to Sun Quan – a message that read less like diplomacy and more like a declaration of intent.
Cao Cao’s ultimatum and the panic in Jiangdong
He boasted of commanding “800,000 troops” and demanded Sun Quan’s submission. When Sun Quan shared the letter with his advisors at Chaisang, panic spread instantly.
Led by Chief Clerk Zhang Zhao, most officials advocated immediate surrender. They emphasized Cao Cao’s overwhelming military might, his control of the imperial court, and the futility of resistance. Even Sun Quan’s cousin, Sun Ben, considered sending his own son as a hostage to Cao Cao for self-preservation – until Wu Commandery Administrator Zhu Zhi intervened and dissuaded him.
Inside the council tent, nearly every voice echoed Zhang Zhao’s stance. Only one man remained silent: Lu Su, Sun Quan’s trusted advisor.
Lu Su’s private counsel
Sensing the gravity of the moment, Sun Quan excused himself to “use the latrine” – a common pretext in ancient China for private reflection or confidential talks. Lu Su followed him out. Recognizing the opportunity, Sun Quan took Lu Su’s hand and asked directly:
“Zijing, what do you wish to say in private?”
Lu Su delivered a masterful piece of political reasoning. He explained that while he himself could surrender to Cao Cao and still expect a modest bureaucratic post – perhaps even return home in comfort – Sun Quan had no such option. As the sovereign of Jiangdong, his very existence threatened Cao Cao’s ambition. Surrender would mean loss of power, possibly life.
“Observing the general discussion, I believe they are deliberately misleading you, Your Excellency. You should not consult them on major decisions. I, Lu Su, could surrender to Cao Cao, but you absolutely must not. How do I prove this? If I surrendered, Cao Cao would likely send me back to my hometown, assess my rank, and at worst appoint me as a low-ranking official – allowing me a cart, a few attendants, and socializing with scholars, eventually rising to a prefectural post. But if you, Your Excellency, surrendered, what would Cao Cao do to you? I urge you to make a decisive plan and disregard their advice!”
This stark contrast cut through Sun Quan’s hesitation. Deeply moved, Sun Quan replied:
“The advice of others has disappointed me greatly. But you have clarified my path – this is Heaven sending you to aid me!”
Lu Su then proposed recalling Zhou Yu, who was stationed elsewhere. Sun Quan immediately dispatched messengers.
Zhou Yu’s strategic rebuttal
Upon his return, Zhou Yu wasted no time dismantling the surrender argument. In a powerful speech, he declared:
“Cao Cao may hold the title of Chancellor, but in truth, he is a traitor to the Han.”
He outlined four critical weaknesses in Cao Cao’s campaign:
- Northern instability: The north was not yet pacified; Ma Chao and Han Sui remained active threats in Guanzhong.
- Unfamiliar terrain: Cao Cao’s cavalry-dominated army had abandoned horses for ships – an ill-suited transition against Jiangdong’s naval experts.
- Seasonal hardship: It was winter; fodder was scarce, and northern soldiers were unaccustomed to Jiangnan’s humid, marshy climate.
- Disease risk: Mass illness among Cao’s troops was almost inevitable.
Zhou Yu concluded,
“Cao Cao is marching into death. How can we surrender to him?”
He boldly requested 30,000 elite troops to confront Cao Cao at Xiakou.
Zhuge Liang’s diplomatic masterstroke
Meanwhile, Zhuge Liang, who had accompanied Lu Su from Liu Bei’s camp, addressed Sun Quan with equal candor. He presented a stark choice:
“If you believe you can resist Cao Cao, break ties with him now. If not, submit without delay.”
When Sun Quan questioned why Liu Bei didn’t surrender, Zhuge Liang invoked moral legitimacy:
“Liu Bei is a descendant of the Han imperial house. Even Tian Heng – a mere warrior of Qi – chose death over dishonor. How much more so Liu Bei?”
He then revealed crucial intelligence: despite the defeat at Changban, Liu Bei still commanded over 10,000 seasoned troops, including Guan Yu’s navy and Liu Qi’s forces in Jiangxia. Moreover, Cao Cao’s hold on Jing Province was tenuous – many had submitted out of fear, not loyalty.
Zhuge Liang urged,
“If you join forces with Liu Bei, victory is certain. After Cao Cao’s defeat, the empire will be divided among three powers – the China Plain, Jing Province, and Eastern Wu. This is your moment.”
The alliance that changed history
Convinced, Sun Quan declared his resolve with dramatic finality. Drawing his sword, he chopped off a corner of the table and proclaimed:
“Anyone who dares speak of surrender again shall suffer the same fate!”
He appointed Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu as Left and Right Commanders, with Lu Su as Military Advisor, and mobilized generals such as Huang Gai, Lü Meng, Gan Ning, and Ling Tong. Their fleet sailed westward up the Yangtzer River to unite with Liu Bei’s forces – marking the formal birth of the Sun-Liu alliance.
Sun Quan summed up his conviction:
“Cao Cao has long sought to usurp the Han throne. He feared Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu, Lü Bu, Liu Biao – and me. Now only I remain. I and this old villain are sworn enemies!”
Historical context: Fiction and Fact
While Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes the council scene – especially Sun Quan’s table-smiting and the intensity of the debate – the core events align with historical records in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
- Lu Su did advise Sun Quan privately and stressed the asymmetry between a ruler’s and a minister’s fate upon surrender.
- Zhou Yu did analyze Cao Cao’s strategic vulnerabilities with remarkable clarity.
- Zhuge Liang’s mission to Jiangdong is historically attested, though his role was likely more diplomatic than decisive; the primary architect of resistance was Zhou Yu.
- The alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei was real and pivotal – it led directly to the Battle of Red Cliffs, which halted Cao Cao’s southern expansion and reshaped Chinese history.
Luo Guanzhong amplified emotional tension and dialogue for literary effect, but the essence remains faithful: a coalition born of necessity, forged by courage, and sealed by shared defiance.
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