In the pivotal year of 208 CE, the balance of power in China shifted dramatically as Cao Cao’s lightning conquest of Jing Province triggered a chain reaction of flight, sacrifice, and strategic realignment.
While Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes the Battle of Changban with legendary heroism – Zhao Yun’s lone charge, Zhang Fei’s roar at Dangyang Bridge – the core events are grounded in historical records like Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) and Sima Guang’s Zizhi Tongjian. This episode marks not only Liu Bei’s lowest ebb, but also the birth of the Sun-Liu alliance that would soon defy Cao Cao at Red Cliffs.
Liu Cong’s surrender and the fall of Jingzhou
After unifying northern China, Cao Cao turned south in 208 CE, targeting the Jing Province regime of Liu Biao. Before Cao’s army even crossed the border, Liu Biao died, leaving his younger son Liu Cong in power. Under pressure from advisors like Kuai Yue and Cai Mao, Liu Cong surrendered without resistance.
With Jingzhou’s gates flung open, Liu Bei – stationed at Xinye – lost his base of operations. Refusing to submit, he fled south with over 100,000 civilians, many of whom followed him out of loyalty or fear of Cao Cao’s harsh rule.
Historically, the Sanguozhi confirms Liu Bei’s mass evacuation, noting his insistence on protecting the people despite military risk – a choice that cemented his image as a “benevolent lord”.
The Race to Jiangling: Cao Cao’s Lightning Pursuit
Learning that Liu Bei aimed for Jiangling – a key arsenal stocked with grain, weapons, and ships – Cao Cao grew alarmed. Fearing Liu Bei would regroup with these resources, he assembled 5,000 elite cavalry, including the fearsome Tiger and Leopard Riders (Hu Bao Qi) under Cao Chun, and launched a lightning pursuit.
Covering over 300 li (≈150 km) per day, they closed the gap rapidly.
Meanwhile, Liu Bei’s column crawled at just 10–15 li per day due to the civilian burden. Because Cao Cao had massacred the people of Xuzhou twice before (The first massacre of Xuzhou vs. The second massacre of Xuzhou), and his army had committed numerous killings wherever they passed, the residents of Xiangyang feared Cao Cao. Over a hundred thousand people voluntarily followed Liu Bei in flight, taking their families along.
To preserve his forces, Liu Bei dispatched Guan Yu with hundreds of warships and transport boats down the Han River to secure Jiangling by water – a move confirmed in both history and fiction.
Advisors urged him to abandon the refugees and flee swiftly. But Liu Bei replied:
“To achieve great things, one must put the people first. How can I forsake them?”
This moment became central to his Confucian-hero persona.
Disaster at Changban
At Changban Slope (Changbanpo) near Dangyang, Cao Cao’s cavalry overran Liu Bei’s rear guard. The army collapsed. Liu Bei fled with only a few dozen horsemen, abandoning his family, troops, and supplies.
Amid the chaos:
- Zhao Yun turned back alone, fought through enemy lines, and rescued Lady Gan and the infant Liu Shan.
- Liu Bei’s two daughters were captured by Cao Chun – a grim detail recorded in the Sanguozhi.
- Xu Shu, whose mother had been taken by Cao’s forces, bid tearful farewell to Liu Bei and defected to Wei – a poignant moment symbolizing the personal cost of war.
While the Romance embellishes Zhao Yun’s exploits into a solo rampage against thousands, the core rescue is historical.
Zhang Fei’s stand: One man holds the bridge
As Cao Cao’s vanguard closed in, Zhang Fei was ordered to cover the retreat with just 20 cavalry. He dismantled the planks of Dangyang Bridge, stood alone on the bank, glared fiercely, and roared:
“I am Zhang Yide! Come and fight me – if any dare!”
Intimidated by his reputation (and possibly suspecting an ambush), Cao’s troops halted. This critical delay allowed Liu Bei to escape across the river.
The Sanguozhi succinctly states: “Fei held the bridge alone; the enemy dared not approach.” Luo Guanzhong magnifies it into myth – but the tactical impact is real.
Lu Su seeks an alliance
Even before Cao Cao’s advance, Lu Su of Eastern Wu had advised Sun Quan:
“Liu Biao is dead. Jing is in chaos. Send envoys to mourn – and seek alliance with Liu Bei against Cao Cao.”
Sun Quan agreed. Lu Su rushed west, only to learn of Liu Cong’s surrender and Liu Bei’s flight. He intercepted Liu Bei at Changban.
Liu Bei, initially planning to join Wu Ju in distant Cangwu, was persuaded by Lu Su:
“Why seek a minor warlord when you can ally with Sun Quan, who commands tens of thousands and shares your cause?”
Recognizing the logic, Liu Bei turned east toward Jiangxia – a decision that would alter history.
Regrouping at Xiakou: The Birth of a Coalition
Soon after, Liu Bei joined forces with Liu Qi, Liu Biao’s elder son and governor of Jiangxia, who commanded over 10,000 troops. Together, they retreated to Xiakou (modern Wuhan) to reorganize.
Observing their crossing to the southern bank, Cao Cao chose not to pursue immediately. Instead, he marched unopposed into Jiangling, securing its vast stores – yet missing the chance to eliminate Liu Bei entirely.
This pause gave the Sun-Liu alliance time to form. Within months, Zhou Yu and Liu Bei would unite at Red Cliffs, turning Cao Cao’s triumph into catastrophe.
Legacy of the Flight: Defeat as prelude to victory
Though 208 began with Liu Bei’s near-total collapse, his refusal to abandon the people, the valor of his generals, and Lu Su’s timely diplomacy transformed disaster into opportunity. The Changban retreat thus stands not as an end, but as the crucible in which the anti-Cao coalition was forged – proving that in the Three Kingdoms, survival could be the first step to victory.
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