The Rise of Empress Dowager Xiao
The Empress Dowager, Xiao Chuo (nicknamed Yanyan), was the daughter of Xiao Siwen, a Northern Prime Minister who married into the imperial family. In the Liao administration, officials were divided into the Southern Bureau (governing Han Chinese affairs) and the Northern Bureau (governing Khitan affairs). Although Xiao Siwen served in the Northern Bureau, he was well-versed in Han classics and history. He educated his daughter Yanyan rigorously; she was meticulous and insightful from a young age. Her father once noted her thoroughness in sweeping a courtyard, predicting her great future. Consequently, she was groomed for leadership, eventually entering the palace as a noble consort to Emperor Jingzong and soon becoming Empress. Following the Liao tradition of intermarriage between the Yelu imperial clan and the Xiao family, she became the matriarch of the state. When Emperor Jingzong fell ill and could no longer handle state affairs, he authorized the Empress to issue edicts in his name. Her prominence grew so much that she overshadowed the Emperor himself. Upon Jingzong’s death, their son, Emperor Shengzong, was too young to rule, leaving the thirty-year-old Xiao Chuo to assume full regency as Empress Dowager.
A Unique Partnership: Xiao and Han Derang
In her youth, Xiao Yanyan had been betrothed to Han Derang, a member of a prominent Han Chinese family in Yutian. His grandfather, Han Zhigu, had been captured by Liao forces but rose to become an official, while his father, Han Kuangsi, served as an imperial physician. Han Derang was talented in both civil and military affairs. Although Yanyan ultimately married Emperor Jingzong, she never forgot her early bond with Han Derang. After becoming a young widow facing internal dissent and the burden of ruling, she sought his support. At Emperor Jingzong’s funeral, she openly told Han Derang, “I was once promised to you. Now that the late Emperor is gone, I still wish to be with you. Treat the young Emperor as your own son and help me govern.”
Han Derang, blushing, pledged his loyalty. To solidify their union and silence gossip about his existing marriage, the Empress Dowager secretly arranged for his wife’s death. She then publicly formalized their relationship by hosting a banquet at Han Derang’s residence, inviting ministers to celebrate as if it were a wedding. Reflecting Khitan customs that were more flexible regarding marriage than Han traditions, this public display quelled criticism. Han Derang, now renamed Yelu Longyun, became the most powerful figure in the court, serving as Commissioner of both the Northern and Southern Bureaus and Grand Councilor, effectively controlling all military and political affairs.
Emulating the Tang: The Vision for Reform
Han Derang advised the Empress that to prosper, the Liao must adopt the administrative systems of the Central Plains rather than relying solely on nomadic pastoralism. The Empress, having lived in Nanjing (modern Beijing) and observed Han civilization, agreed. They initiated a comprehensive reform program, supported by the young Emperor Shengzong, who revered Han Derang as a father figure. Shengzong was an avid scholar, particularly fond of Han literature. He admired The Zhenguan Zhengyao (Essentials of Government of the Zhenguan Reign), declaring Tang Taizong the wisest monarch of the past five centuries. He also valued the poetry of Bai Juyi for its bold criticism of politics. He ordered these works translated into Khitan script for his officials, urging them to learn from Tang governance and avoid the pitfalls criticized by Bai Juyi.
Legal, Economic, and Social Reforms
Under the guidance of Xiao and Han, a series of new decrees transformed Liao society:
- Legal Equality: Previously, Liao law favored Khitans; a Han killing a Khitan faced execution and enslavement of their family, while a Khitan killing a Han only paid a fine of livestock. The reforms established equal justice under the law, prohibiting slave owners from arbitrarily killing slaves and requiring legal trials for all crimes.
- Taxation System: Moving away from raiding, the Liao adopted a structured tax system modeled after the Tang and Song dynasties. Land was distributed to the people for agriculture, and taxes were levied based on acreage and household, stabilizing the economy and filling the treasury.
- Emancipation of Slaves: War captives, formerly enslaved by nobles, were organized into tribes and granted commoner status. This reduced social unrest and increased productivity.
- Meritocratic Governance: Han Derang implemented imperial examinations to select officials based on talent rather than ethnicity or birth. Strict codes of conduct were enforced: officials were banned from flattery and corruption, and even imperial relatives faced punishment for crimes. In one instance, Emperor Shengzong demoted a princess and penalized her husband for illegally killing a slave.
Building a New Capital and Asserting Legitimacy
Empress Dowager Xiao envisioned a settled agrarian society surpassing the Song and rivaling the Tang. To reflect this new status, the Liao decided to build a new capital, Zhongjing (in modern Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia), modeled after Chang’an and Bianjing. Unlike the traditional nomadic practice of moving camps seasonally, Zhongjing featured permanent palaces, streets, and administrative buildings, providing a dignified center for governance. With these advancements, the Liao rulers began to view themselves as the legitimate successors to the Chinese imperial tradition, equal to the Song, and increasingly ambitious about conquering the Central Plains.
The Contrast: A Weak Song Successor
While the Liao Dynasty underwent vigorous reform and strengthening, the Song Dynasty stagnated. Emperor Taizong, preoccupied with internal rebellions, had merely managed to defend against Liao incursions. In 997, Taizong died, and his son Zhao Heng ascended the throne as Emperor Zhenzong. Unlike his predecessors, Zhenzong had grown up sheltered in the palace, lacking experience and courage. Faced with the looming threat of the revitalized Liao military, led personally by the capable Empress Dowager and Emperor Shengzong, the timid Song Emperor found himself unable to formulate a strategy, relying entirely on his ministers. The security of the Song Dynasty now hung in the balance.
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